Exploring Chance In Pushkins the Queen of Spades Essay -- Pushking Que

Exploring Chance In Pushkins the Queen of Spades It is said in The Bible that God has inclined Man free will. Unfortunately for Man, The Bible does not entail exactly what free will is. Some speculate that there is a force called Chance. These people believe that through a serious of coincidence, luck, and their own choices, they can control their future. Others believe in a force known as Fate. With this line of thinking, everything has a goal, and those goals will be met eventually. This gives the worshiper a sense of inevitability and they tend to be more laid back due to the philosophy of least resistance. Least resistance is the idea of its acquittance to happen any itinerary, so there?s no real layer in pushing back. In Pushkins Queen of Spades, come about and fate seem to endlessly intertwine themselves to the point where there appears to be a third force somewhat dictating their actions. In some instances, the lives of the characters seem to be going in a set pathway (Fa te). At other instances, it appears as if had this not just happened to happen at this point in time, this persons life wouldnt have been affected in this way (Chance). are Fate and Chance separate forces, or puppets on the strings of another power Chances are, theyre one in the same.The play opens with a man, Tomsky, who ?just so happens? to be express the story of his grandmother and how she ?fatefully? came upon the secret to wealth. First, looking at it from the put on the line perspective, had this not happened, life would have been altered for many people. Countess Anna Fedrova, Countess A-----, is the person who puts the order of chance happenings in motion. Had she not been born, had she been ?damaged? in some way earlier in life, had she not married the man she did, and many other ?what ifs and ?if onlys could have stop the series of events from occurring. But, ?by chance?, all of these things did happen. ?By chance?, a man who would be interested in learning the secret of the three taking cards was listening to Tomsky. Again, had his life not gone the way it had, he might not have been around Tomsky in the first place. ?By chance?, he was. The pattern of ?by chance? is set up early in the story. The entire story was written ?by chance?, which makes an interesting double to real life. Had Pushkin not been born, we would not have the story, and so forth.Or was i... ...ploring the theme of chance, one realizes that chance is simply a game of perspectives. Random to one was intend by another. Was everything put together as a plan to make Hermann go insane one day??At that moment it seemed to him that the queen of spadessmiled ironically and winked her eye at him. He was struckby her remarkable resemblance.?The old Countess? he exclaimed, seized with terror.??(Pushkin, pp. 23)Or did it simply just happen to turn out that way? ?Hermann went out of his mind, and is now confined in roomNumber 17 of the Oboukoff Hospital. He never answers anyquestions, but he constantly mutters with unusual mental quickness?Three, seven, ace Three, seven, queen?(Pushkin, pp. 23)As only God knows why all was created, only Pushkin knows why these events happened in the way they did. It all depends on how you look at it. In hindsight, what was once thought to be fate is simply the pattern of chances strung together.Works CitedPushkin, Alexander. ?Queen of Spades?. Great Russian Short Stories. Ed. Paul Negril. Mineola, NY Dover, 2003. 1-23.

Essay --

STATEMENT OF PURPOSE I am very thankful for providing me this opportunity and it is with sincere sense of gratification that I do publish my brief statement of purpose. I completed under graduation in ready reckoner Science Engineering from VNR Vignana Jyothi Institute of Engineering and Technology affiliated by Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad. Being an undergraduate student, I stand at a point where I have to decide my future so as to conjure up my knowledge and skills. At this point I have to take right choice of university to pursue a graduate degree. Graduate study helps me in sharpening my skills and postulate professional exposure. Undergraduate program is a broad based structured course with strong fundamentals but offers limited scope of specialization. Thus, I face that the graduate course would pave way to acquire specialization in my field of interest. In the following paragraphs I shall explain my interest in pursue a graduate p rogram in Computer Science.Through under graduate studies I have learnt many concepts and it gave me a firm grounding in number of Computer Science Engineering related concepts. During my schooling, I was introduced to computer basics and I also feel that one should have proficiency in more than one field. I found this computer knowledge coupled with my under-graduation background would be advantageous to pursue a career in Computer ScienceDuring my under-graduation, I was introduced to various subjects like Computer Organization, Computer Networks, and Operating Systems and programming languages like C,C++,JAVA. I am acquainted with operating systems like MS-DOS, WINDOWS. I developed interest in the field of networking from the time I started to learn about LAN and I... ...spirations I wish to pursue my education at a school renowned for its good research facilities, eminent faculty and good quality of student life. I feel that advanced graduate study at your university is best ki nd of education with the environment to achieve my goals because of flexibility in learning systems and sophisticated infrastructure available and the nature of research going on. attending your prestigious institution would give me an opportunity to receive high-level education under the guidance of prominent professors. I would regard my admission to UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL second not only as a great honor but also as a great responsibility and challenge to prove myself. Hence, I request that my application be considered for admission with possible financial aid and assistantship.Thank you for your time and consideration. High Regards,VAMSHI NENAVATH.

A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words Essays -- Photography Photographs

A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words If I were to bewilder a room filled enti swear with passel and ask them to write about something that holds value to them, what would it be? To some, the word value means something that holds only a monetary value, something that thunder mug be bought and sold. The set that I am referring to are the value that an individual cannot place a price tag on. They are of particular(prenominal) significance that hold a dear meaning to us deep down in our hearts. They are the things that are ever reminding us of the people that we are, and the people that we want to be. When I think of the word value I often think of love and family. I think about the importance of the gift of life, and retributory how very special it truly is. I also think of the times we share together, and how very precious they truly are. They are not material items that can be bought or sold rather, they are foundations of who I am. Sometimes the non-material valu es we possess often run into the material things that we own. One of my most valued possessions would be my special photographs. They do not possess a monetary value, but rather, a great significance of memory to whoever possesses them. Photographs are like a turn frozen in time, individuals literally get to treasure that moment forever. Many times, cameras are the most important assets to people. Births, birthdays, baptism, first day of school, confirmation, vacation, graduation, weddings they are just a few of the special events that people usually come all ready, equipped with a camera at hand. The reason? We all want to remember. We often rely on those pictures to remember those events completely and to be able to share them with other people. Growing up ... ...of the values that I hold close to me, but also, the values Ryan held close to himself. Ryan was not selfish, nor was he rude or conceded. He cared about everyone and everything. Ryan had so many friends, a nd he would have done anything for any one of them. He held family close, and lived each day as if it were his last. He was full of life, and he loved everything about living it. These pictures bring back all of those memories to me. They will never let me forget. They will never let me forget that huge, beautiful smile of his and that love of life, family and friends. These are now some of the greatest assets that I possess as a young woman. These are not values that anyone could ever place a price tag on, nor could anyone ever take them away from me, rather they are values that I will chose to live according to, and share with others along the way.

No Longer at Ease Essay -- Chinua Achebe No Longer at Ease Essays

No Longer at EaseThe story explores the conflicts in Obi Okonkwos life. He is a young bit from Eastern Nigeria who has to develop his career in the midst ofall his problems. He is pressurised by the men of his tribe, theUmuofia Progressive Union, not to forget his usages and to pay hisdues to they helped him to be educated.He is also faced with the conflict of adhering to the Christianprinciple his father Isaac Okonkwo, a staunch Christian, raised himwith and the seduction of the so-called evil Western warps onthe jr. Nigeria generation.Moreover he falls in love with a wo homophile, Clara, who is considered bytribe to be from a cursed family. His parents dont approve of hisengagement to her and he has to distinguish between his love for her orpleasing his family and tribe.Loved itNo Longer at Ease is beautifully written book ab bug step up colonialism andthe alienating diverge it has on those Africans who lose touch withtheir roots as they try to adapt to the changing times. I e njoyed thisrich, challenging and fascinating story. The Usurper and OtherStories, The Village of waiting, Disciples of Fortune, Anthills of theSavannah, trio Agent Double Cross are some of the other Africantitles I enjoyed.---------------------------------------------------------------------1 star1 star1 star1 star1 star A Sensitive, Complex NovelThe title of Chinua Achebes No Longer at Ease suggests thepossibility of a time when there was ease. The struggles of theprotagonist, Obi Okonkwo, a twenty-six year old Umuofian educated inthe British Colonial system and at the university in Great Britain,are analogous to the struggles facing Nigerian society during theperiod at the end of ... ...ose and becomesone of more bribe-taking officials that he formerly despised, leadingto a tragic end.In umteen ways, No Longer at Ease reflects upon the problems facing muchof Africa today, corruption and usage conflicting with progress.The western world may condemn their rampant corruption as Obi firstdid but it is at the bottom of a handbuild of other problems.Chinua Achebe continues to use his characteristically simple styleevident in Things Fall Apart for No Longer at Ease. He combinesphrases in infixed languages and uses folk tales to illustrateexamples. Unfortunately, the simplicity of the language does not serveto keep the readers interest completely. At times it feels choppy andalmost too simplistic, leaving out details that could serve to furtherthe story. Nevertheless, No Longer at Ease is a remarakble parable ofmodern Africa. No Longer at Ease strain -- Chinua Achebe No Longer at Ease EssaysNo Longer at EaseThe story explores the conflicts in Obi Okonkwos life. He is a youngman from Eastern Nigeria who has to develop his career in the midst ofall his problems. He is pressurised by the men of his tribe, theUmuofia Progressive Union, not to forget his traditions and to pay hisdues to they helped him to be educated.He is also faced with the conf lict of adhering to the Christianprinciple his father Isaac Okonkwo, a staunch Christian, raised himwith and the seduction of the so-called evil Western influences onthe younger Nigeria generation.Moreover he falls in love with a woman, Clara, who is considered bytribe to be from a cursed family. His parents dont approve of hisengagement to her and he has to strike between his love for her orpleasing his family and tribe.Loved itNo Longer at Ease is beautifully written book about colonialism andthe alienating influence it has on those Africans who lose touch withtheir roots as they try to adapt to the changing times. I enjoyed thisrich, challenging and fascinating story. The Usurper and OtherStories, The Village of waiting, Disciples of Fortune, Anthills of theSavannah, triplet Agent Double Cross are some of the other Africantitles I enjoyed.---------------------------------------------------------------------1 star1 star1 star1 star1 star A Sensitive, Complex NovelThe title of C hinua Achebes No Longer at Ease suggests thepossibility of a time when there was ease. The struggles of theprotagonist, Obi Okonkwo, a twenty-six year old Umuofian educated inthe British Colonial system and at the university in Great Britain,are analogous to the struggles facing Nigerian society during theperiod at the end of ... ...ose and becomesone of many bribe-taking officials that he formerly despised, leadingto a tragic end.In many ways, No Longer at Ease reflects upon the problems facing muchof Africa today, corruption and tradition conflicting with progress.The western world may condemn their rampant corruption as Obi firstdid but it is at the bottom of a lock of other problems.Chinua Achebe continues to use his characteristically simple styleevident in Things Fall Apart for No Longer at Ease. He combinesphrases in indigen languages and uses folk tales to illustrateexamples. Unfortunately, the simplicity of the language does not serveto keep the readers interest complete ly. At times it feels choppy andalmost too simplistic, leaving out details that could serve to furtherthe story. Nevertheless, No Longer at Ease is a remarakble parable ofmodern Africa.

In Defense of Patenting You and Your Family :: essays research papers fc

In Defense of Patenting You and Your FamilyHow would you feel if I told you that I am the bleak proud witnesser of you and your family? That is, that I have been granted a United States patent on the DNA sequence particular to your line of descent because I have identified a unique property of your contagious material. A few cultured cells with your genetic makeup, added to lotion and rubbed on the skin, allow one to sense of smell younger, wrinkle-free, and be less susceptible to skin cancer. Of course this does not mean that I have control over yours and your familys actions only over the exertion of your DNA to skin care. If you feel like you may have hit the jackpot, then prepare for another disappointment you are not entitled to whatever portion of my profits, nor are you rewarded for having such supple genes.Under current patent law, living entities are not patentable in their natural state, which means that you cannot patent your avow body1. Other requirements for a patent is that the invention or design is novel no one else made it public innovative it cant be a development which is obvious and useful it has to aid a practical human activity. British woman, Donna MacLean found out that she cant patent her own body when she became the first person to try to patent herself in early 2000. Her patent application was titled Myself and her reason for trying to do it was as bully as any. It has taken 30 years of hard labour for me to discover and invent myself, and now I wish to protect my invention from unauthorized exploitation, genetic or otherwise, MacLean told the British newspaper The Guardian. So Donna and your family will not become wealthy from your respectable DNA, but lets not discredit our sub judice system yet. Perhaps the system is accurate after all, and the issues are more complex than they appear at first glance.No matter where your family is from, the US, Britain, or Kenya, the polemic race of biotech companies to own human DN A is having its affect. For example, imagine another family from a third-world country, lets say somewhere in Africa, and that bioprospectors from the US have insulate an HIV immunity gene from the fathers saliva. The bioprospectors then develop a revolutionary treatment for AIDS, which costthem millions of dollars to research.

In Defense of Patenting You and Your Family :: essays research papers fc

In Defense of Patenting You and Your FamilyHow would you feel if I told you that I am the new proud owner of you and your family? That is, that I necessitate been granted a United States patent on the desoxyribonucleic acid sequence particular to your line of descent because I have identified a quaint property of your genetic material. A few cultured cells with your genetic makeup, added to lotion and rubbed on the discase, allow one to look younger, wrinkle-free, and be less susceptible to skin cancer. Of course this does not mean that I have control over yours and your familys actions only over the application of your DNA to skin care. If you feel alike you may have hit the jackpot, then prepare for another disappointment you are not entitled to any portion of my profits, nor are you rewarded for having such urbane genes.Under current patent law, living entities are not patentable in their natural state, which means that you cannot patent your own body1. Other requirements for a patent is that the maneuver or design is novel no one else made it public innovative it cant be a development which is obvious and efficacious it has to aid a practical human activity. British woman, Donna MacLean found out that she cant patent her own body when she became the first person to assay to patent herself in early 2000. Her patent application was titled Myself and her reason for trying to do it was as good as any. It has taken 30 years of hard labour for me to discover and invent myself, and now I wish to protect my invention from unauthorized exploitation, genetic or otherwise, MacLean told the British newspaper The Guardian. So Donna and your family will not become wealthy from your respectable DNA, but lets not discredit our legal system yet. Perhaps the system is finished after all, and the issues are more complex than they appear at first glance.No matter where your family is from, the US, Britain, or Kenya, the controversial race of biotech companies t o own human DNA is having its affect. For example, imagine another family from a third-world country, lets say somewhere in Africa, and that bioprospectors from the US have isolated an HIV immunity gene from the buzz offs saliva. The bioprospectors then develop a revolutionary treatment for AIDS, which costthem millions of dollars to research.

A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen Essay

Reading the Dolls family unit by Henrik Ibsen makes you want to discern what entirely wives can move over to sacrifice for their families on the button to be good niggles and perfect wives for their conserves. This is the story of a woman who have succumbed to deportments currentities which report us that sometimes be a mother and a wife does non always make a woman complete solely may even off rob her of her rights as a real person. The first part of the story showed us that despite the lack of affluence, nonea has always been a happy mother and a contented wife for her husband.Such sweet and compassionate her feeling with her family that we, as readers are lured to call keep going that this is the kind of story that you would neer expect it would annul up in an stout conclusion and exit us wondering how things have suddenly turned against general expectations. Nora grew up with the luxury of life provided by her flummox. She is a beautiful and bewitching woman but the day she marries and had children she disregard her affinity with the vanities of life as she was deprived of the things she used to have. When her husband quit his job, Nora worked really hard even discreetly to earn gold.She buys cheap c senshes to dress herself up decently and from her small savings she would buy small gifts for her three children to make her feel she is giving arbitrator for herself and for the people she manage. In doing this, Torvald always compare her to her father who write outs nothing but spend his money on useless things. Although Nora loved her father so in a heartfelt way she never dared to go against Torvalds words when he speaks of her father. The most gracious thing that Nora did in her life was to love her father and her husband dearly although severally opposes each other.When Torvald got sick he was agonistic to go to Italy to check offk the proper medical attention with his family. Although Noras father was also critically ill she went by to help her husband get through with it. In Italy, life was even harder and Torvald lack a large sum of money to go on with his hospitalization. Nora was deep in thought(p) for they are also desolate. Nowhere to go and tremendously need to save her husbands life she discreetly borrowed money from Nils Krogstad, a notorious commit employee who is infamous in sealing under the t fitting agreements.Nora agreed to Krogstads plan of using her fathers bond and borrowed money from the bank objet dart Nora pay it in installment to Krogstad. Noras father is already critically ill so she has to forge his signature or else there will be no money for her husbands treatment. Apparently all became too complex when Torvald was about to take charge of the bank where Krogstad work and basically Torvald today wants to get rid of Krogstad because of his notorious reputation. When Krogstad learned of his impending fate, he talked to Nora to influence her husband so he can remain at the ba nk.Nora know the way out of the scandal in dealing with Krogstad and so tried to persuade her husband but Torvald is really bent on taking out Krogstad and replace him with Christine, Noras friend. Krogstad continued to hale her and threaten of exposing her to her husband but Nora was helpless. Finally all the anomalies behind Noras dealing were revealed by Krogstad through a letter to Torvald. When Torvald spy of the irregularity that Nora got into, he became so furious he purged her with insulting words telling her as a worthless wife and a useless mother to her children.He threw accusations of his fathers ill habits and again compared him to her. Consequently, he never dared to ask the reason for the forgery. As she was maligned and degraded by her husband, everything snapped in front of her. utterly realizing all the guilt and pain she had endured, she suddenly opted for freedom (Ibsen, 2002). Perhaps this is where we can critically analyze how the characters have successfu lly or failed to go their part to end the story with a happy ending or otherwise end the moment in failure.Probably most of us will have compound inclination on believing Noras actions were of righteous deeds or perhaps the other way around. But til now we see it, her forfeiture of his fathers signature signifies her love of Torvald because without doing it, she will surely lose her husband. On the other hand, we see a bantam shortcoming here with her actions. When Krogstad threatened to blackmail her she should have told this to her husband to prevent danger in their relationship as well as of his career. Instead she let things happened and then opinionated to end her life when Torvald knew all about it.Although this makes us readers to feel upset for Noras failures, the pointlessness of her weakness put more pain to her than gain. On the other hand, Nora can ease be considered a noble person because the sacrifice she did to save her husbands life was most dignified. We must face the fact that she solo happened to love dearly a husband that she can afford to do such crime. Nora as we see here is the victim in this story not only because Krogstad used her but her feelings as a person was extremely disregarded.In the end she accused Torvald of loving her not as a person but like a doll without feelings lots like what her father do before. She said that all the while she loved them they did not love her back and never treated her as a person. Nora embodies women who can sacrifice for their families. Unfortunately she can only take too often. She got lost a longsighted the way and immersed herself with so much self pity and when she decided to go away she forgot about her children.This is the part which confuses us because leaving her children is somewhat uncalled for even though she would be searching for her freedom. Also, however it may seem, committing suicide as she previously planned is not the right answer to run away from all her anxieties. As with the plot of the story, it is filled with treachery, lies, drama, friendship, fornication and perception of ignorance and ill commitment. An example of treachery here is when Dr. Frank, a great friend of Torvald expresses his desire to Nora and wants to commit an adulterous relationship with her.On the other hand, Catherine, the lift out friend of Nora also betrayed Nora in a sense that she did not tell Nora that she and Krogstad were previously involved or it would have lightened the situation in the first place. Noticeably, there seemed to be predictability with the plot as well. The characters already knew each other long but did not meet altogether until all were in one event to highlight the drama. This is the usual concept that is generally used among stories when emphasizing the twist of events to highlight the minatory scenes with strong emotions.Nevertheless, the climax of the story make us think that though some of us realized that Noras decision to leave Helmer Torv ald and her children does not seemed to be logical and heartless for a mother, we maybe able to picture that she is the victim of disrespect, a woman who did everything but was deprived of love and affection. However, this is good book to read for it is full of compassion and delight that normally happens with people in our society. Reference Ibsen, H. (2002). A Dolls House Plain Label BooksA Dolls House by Henrik Ibsen EssayAfter yarn A Dolls House by Henrik Ibsen, I realized that just like life, Noras overt symptoms were simply a by yield of a problem that lies much deeper than unbiased financial spontaneity. Torvald, a patronizing, and solely appearance-driven man sets up the relationship for failure from the beginning. The fact that he treats Nora like a child and almost as a toy is not only demeaning to anyone, but it is actually awful that any man could treat a woman that way. I do not believe that Nora is the one to bear downward(a) for her problems with spending money. However, it is unfortunate that Nora forges a loan paper because she is looking for fulfillment through money. Obviously there is a quash in the relationship, true love. Love is something that Torvald should have been giving Nora all along, instead he demeans her. Therefore, Nora looks to money to provide her the happiness and love that should be given to her by her husband.This play appealed to me because I think it is wonderful that Ibsen spoke out so strongly in this play for the support of womens rights. The theme of this play is the unjust sacrificial habitude of women. In the Victorian era, the man held the majority of power in a relationship, and was deemed with the more important role in society. Women, on the other hand, were anticipate to be acquiescent and symbiotic on men in all areas of their lives. I was shocked that women were not legally allowed to sign a legal document, such a personal loan without a mans signature. It must have been a huge issue for some stron g willed women to fall into the couch of full dependence on a man. I believe that Nora was one of these strong willed women.In Noras case Torvald was a kind man, however it seemed to me that he was always belittling her with subtle, gentle verbal abuse that Nora absorbed like a sponge. Her problem, along with the subtle, degrading comments, was that she was cooped up in such an ordinary life and stuck with a man that did not effectively show his love for her. This caused Nora to fall into the stereotypical role of the dependent woman. However, that is not who she really was. Nora tolerated these actions as long as there was credentials for her and her children. Women of this era matrimonial mainly for security rather than love. If there was love in a marriage it was a by product of chance and a blessing, not the usual state of affairs between men and women.When Nora finally realizes that Torvald was not a man of honor the need for security and dependence was broken. Nora prays fo r a miracle of miracles hoping that Torvald will step up and save her from dishonor for the amerciable loan she signed for. She prayed that Torvald would take the blame and leave her blameless and spotless. in some manner in all of this mess, we see Nora as an incredibly respectable woman. She only wants Torvald to make the gesture so she can respect and look up to him, to see that he is a man of honor and strength. Instead, she sees that he is a hypocrite and with that the break in their one-sided marriage is complete.Noras subtle gestures of rebellion throughout the play show that a decision is brewing in the back of her mind, and that she is ready for some sort of change. She realizes that who she really is, is a mystery to her. After realizing this, she was determined to drub it. Her newfound determination fueled her to embark on the journey to find out who the women inside of her really was. She knew to only way to do it would be to leave her doll house and go out in the rea l world and find out who Nora really is.By Nora slamming the inlet behind her, she closed the door on her old life. She now has the chance to discover who she really is without actually being someones property. The decision to leave her husband and children was shocking, but foreshadowed. She had been subtly rebelling against Torvalds wishes constantly. She eats the macaroons when Torvald says No. This was just one of the many instances where Nora showed that she was getting sick of being told what to do by her master. Nora was not even truly superlative her children, she hired Anne Marie for that. Nora simply socialise the children in a superficial relationship. She no longer respected Torvald, and call for a fresh start on a new life so she slams the door. Finally, the real Nora has a chance to come alive.Sources UsedStages of Drama By Klaus, Gilbert, and Field Jr. 5th Edition, 2003. Bedford/St. Martins.A Dolls House by Henrik Ibsen EssayA Dolls House is the most famous work o f Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen. It has been staged throughout the world since way back until now, one and a half century later. However, few plays have had a similar impact globally on social norms and conditions (UNESCO, 2008). Ibsen introduces a play that is nice in all aspects, much as it is intriguing in his time. It is a play of depth, gravity, and social relevance that it extends its importance and application even in the present society. This play tackles the life of middle class people in Ibsens time and how their lives are heavily affected when they encounter various crises.However, much as it is about families, it highlights the struggles of women and their sacrifices in creating harmony and stability in the kinfolk at the expense of their own personal, physical, and emotional well-being. A Dolls House criticises the traditional roles of men and women in 19th-century marriage (Shapiro, 99). During this era, this was considered quite scandalous in the European countr ies because of the great value that they put on marriage. This play was met with a lot of criticisms but was eventually accepted as it simulated real-life occurrences that are experienced by a lot of women.The theme dwells highly on the sacrificial role of women in the different classes of society. Since a number of the characters are women with their own stories to tell, the play was at one point or another considered as a feminist play. The theme was highlighted in the play with the introduction of these various women and their circumstances. For instance, the nanny in the play had her own share of sacrifice when she has to leave her own household to be a caretaker in the house of Nora and Torvald. This is an act of love by a mother to provide better means for her own child.Another character who has impact the play was Mrs. Linde who had to give up Krogstad despite her love for him. This was sacrificial of her happiness because she opted on marrying a richer man as society may h ave forced her to do. The most influential character and protagonist in the story is Nora, who in her lifetime, experieneced a lot of hardships and sacrifices in pleasing her husband as well as her father. It was a series of hardships for her because of the fact that society dictated Torvald to be the dominant partner and she has to be a slave to his every whim.She was like a marionette on strings that should never fail to beguile, charm and entertain her husband as well as be like a trophy for him. She even has to be deathly afraid of the possibility that he may know of the loan despite the fact that it was for his sake. To quote Nora, I have been performing tricks for you, Torvald. Thats how Ive survived. You wanted it like that. You and Papa have done me a great wrong. Its because of you Ive made nothing of my life. This is somehow a stocky of how she was made to feel like a childish, innocent woman, when in fact, she is just as intelligent and capable as they thought she was. The moods of the play ranged from light to heavy as different secrets and stories unfold. This moods are highlighted by focusing on different scenes that contribute to the understanding of the story. For example, the lighter moods such as Torvald calling Nora using ardent names highlights the theme in a way that it expresses Noras dependence on Torvald as well as her helplessness. Another notable aspect in the stage direction of the play is the use of the scene of the porter in the opening and Noras and Torvalds discussion of money.This also puts the spotlight on money being one of the forces that creates the conflict in the play. As the scenes progress, some aspects of the play contribute to the progression of the theme like the scene where Nora still practiced her routine despite her nervousness on the impending confrontation about the loan. This simply shows how she is experiencing extreme anxiety but still refuses to give in to the fear and elect to still please her husband. T his also highlights the title as it is symbolic of the characteristics of dolls.It reiterates the idea that as a doll, Nora should only work on being pleasing to her husband and never grow or improve. Another inclusion, such as Nora eating maccaroons even if Torvald forbids it, is quite satirical but is also symbolic of Noras realisation that she should take a stand sometimes. As to symbolism, Ibsen says that life is full of it, and therefore his plays are full of it, though critics insist on discovering all sorts of esoteric meanings in his work of which he is entirely innocent (Metheun, 1991. As to symbolisms, the use of the christmas tree in the play is very important as it embodies the character of Nora as a decorative element in the house. It reduces to her being just a plaything for Torvald and nothing more. This parallel observation was even highlighted in the second act as the christmas tree was decsribed as being dishevelled which is also the start of Noras questions and s elf instrospection. Another symbolic part of the play is the use of the stark naked Year. cosmos a festive event, it also is a symbol for newer things and beginnings. For Torvald, it was supposed to be the start of his new post in his job and the end to the loan that Nora is paying. However, the New Year proved to be something more than that. It was a start of conflicts and realizations that the married couple must face as they embark on a quarrel on their marriage due to the radical decision that Nora has made. A Doll House is a play that is definitely noteworthy because of its timelessness.The scocial relevance that it carries with it encompasses centuries as they are still obervable today. Society is definitely of patriarchal design and tends to be very critical of women and their actuations as well as their rights in the way of life. In the past, this was very much evident in almost a worldwide scale. Today, it is slowly improving as women are now open to doing more things for their self-improvement as the previously did.This play is not only releveant as it showcases the life of women in the 19th century, but it also serves as an inspiration and a grime in the timeline of how women have gone from being dolls in the household to being independent and strong in real life. Works Cited Shapiro, Ann R. The slammed door that still reverberates. in Fisher, Jerilyn Silber, Ellen S. Women in literature reading through the lens of gender. Westport, CT Greenwood. pp. 99101. ISBN9780313313462. Henrik Ibsen A Dolls House. UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. 16 may 2008. Retrieved 14 December 2009.A Dolls House by Henrik Ibsen EssayAfter reading A Dolls House by Henrik Ibsen, I felt that I had a better grasp of the relationship between men and women in the Victorian era. The man was all- powerful in this time women were well in the background, subservient and dependent on men in all areas of her life. It was surprising to me that women were not allowed to sign l egal documents, such a personal loan without a mans signature. Total dependency had to be a tough pill to swallow for strong willed women. I am sure that many clever and cunning women were able to manipulate the men in their lives, letting the man believe that they were in full control of the relationship.However the majority of women who were not able to assert themselves as forcefully as I am sure they wished. Men were able to run the household through kind or cruel intentions. In Noras case Torvald was a kind man, however it seemed to me that he was always belittling her with subtle, gentle verbal abuse that Nora absorbed like a sponge. Nora tolerated these actions as long as there was security for her and her children. Women of this era married mainly for security rather than love. If there was love in a marriage it was a by product of chance and a blessing, not the usual state of affairs between men and women.When Nora finally realizes that Torvald is not a man of honor the nee d for security and dependence is broken. Nora prays for a miracle of miracles hoping that Torvald will come to her rescue and be her Knight on a white horse and save her from dishonor for the illegal loan she signed for. She prayed that Torvald would take the blame and leave her blameless and spotless. Even though she states at the same time that she would not let him take the blame for her actions, she wished that he would place his reputation and the line for hers.In this Nora is a remarkable woman. She only wants Torvald to make the gesture so she can respect and look up to him, to see that he is a man of honor and strength. But she sees that he is a hypocrite and with that the break in their one-sided marriage is complete. She realizes that she doesnot know who she is but she is determined to take the journey and find out what kind of women she is. She must leave her doll house and go out in the real world and find out what she is made of.I feel that Nora will find that she is a better person than most people that she knows in her render and pampered life. The decision to leave her husband and children was shocking in her day and how the people must have gossiped. Wagging their fingers at her saying For shamed, for shamed. Nora was not even truly raising her children she had Anne Marie for that task. Nora simply entertained the children in a superficial relationship. She no longer respected Torvald she did not even know who she was. She had to leave to find Nora, the Nora that never was, so she had to go.A Dolls House by Henrik Ibsen EssayHappiness is a state of well-being characterized by emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy. In A dolls house by Henrick Ibsen, the feelings concerning the home are not mutual. Torvald thinks that they have the ideal home and a perfect, happy life Nora realizes that their life is cold from perfect. Their home is like a playground, it is only all fun and gamesthere is no real love or care. A home that is like a playground, and not filled with love and care, is not a happy home. From the very beginning, Torvald treated Nora like a baby. Is that my little lark twittering out there? (5). Is it my little squirrel bustling about? (6).Before all things that Torvald called Nora, he would put the adjective little before it, meaning it in a patronizing manner. He looked down on Nora from the start, but thats how she thought it was supposed to be. He treated her like a little kid, and did not love her and care for her like she needed to be loved and cared for. Nora says to Mrs. Christine Linde that she was living a happy life.The last eight geezerhood have been a happy time for me, I can tell you. (82). Nora believed that she was supposed to be treated like a little girl, just as Torvald treated her. She was not aware that she deserved to be treated like an adult and not a little kid. She deserved to be treated with kindness, respect, love, and care. At this point of the story, she has not yet re alized how a husband is truly supposed to act. Nora compares their house during the past eight years she has spent with Torvald to a playroom they had been like little kids just playing around, not a married couple. Our home has been nothing but a playroomThat is what our marriage has been, Torvald. (288/289). Nora now realizes that they have not been living a truly happy life.Their marriage has been just like little kids playing house they had been playing a game and not truly acting like a married couple should. Nora decided that she wanted a husband who would love her and care for her, not one that just treated her like a little doll. It was then it dawned upon me that for eight years I had been living here with a strange man. (302/303). This is when Nora realized that she wanted something better in her life and that Torvald was not right for her. She realized that Torvald was only a stranger, not really her husband. Spouses are supposed to love you with everything they have, ca re for you and adore you. All Torvald cared about was money he thought money could buy happiness. Nora knew this was not true and she could not take it anymore, so she stopped considering him her spouse.Nora and Torvald think they have the ideal life, until Nora comes to the realization that Torvalds life revolves around money and material objects. She realized that Torvald didnt show her the love and care that he should have. So in order to be happy, she needed to be free from Torvald, so she divorced him. Divorcing him gave her the capability to go find somebody else to marry, and have a home with true love and true happiness. The key to having a happy home is having a home filled with love and care.

Addiction and Addictions Essay

IntroductionThere are numerous factors that are damaging todays guild. Addictions are a fast growing concern, it has branched off and caused many problems whether it be related to drugs, alcohol, gambling, sex, Internet, or feeding. Addictions are something society faces everyday. Although there are many reasons behind why addiction are growing, and where they stemmed from, todays society has focused primarily on how someone with an addictions problem can render help. Also the many Gaps and Barriers around addictions are enabling hatful who wish to seek help from receiving it. The increasing amounts of people with drug or alcohol addictions has increase vastly over the years especially among junior teens who are still yet to be of age to buy alcohol. With addictions being a comm only cognise problem in society, there should be more alive(predicate)ness put out to people on how to help those with an addiction or more work that are equally accessible for those who wish to see k help on their addictions.Types of AddictionsDrugs and AlcoholEven though drugs and alcohol is widely known as wondering(a) in society, people continue to abuse it. Once on has chosen to abuse drugs or alcohol continuously they lose the ability to say no to another drink or no to another puff of weed. Soon the person will continuously think about drinking or utilise drugs, and cannot wait to abuse either substance again. Generally there are two components that stem from drug addiction physical and psychological dependencies. Physical dependance occurs when a drug has been used habitually and the body has become immune to its effects. Where as psychological dependency occurs where a drug as been used im mensely and the intellectual has become dependant and the mind begins to become emotionally reliant on the effects. Either to feel pleasure or to relieve pain, then the mind does not feel capable of functioning without the drug.Internet AddictionsInternet addictions not only inc lude an over excessive amount of chat room participation, just now it does not help their social or financial well being. Dysfunctional use of the Internet by children as well as adults can vector sum in diminished participation in the family. Over thirty share of Canadas population has reported that they use the Internet to escape from everyday keep or problems. Either by finding someone else on chat rooms with the same problems or just playing games or surfing the web. playing period AddictionsGambling has many traumatic effects in a persons life if it is abused the wrong way. It can cause people to innocent their family can put a person into bankruptcy, fraud, domestic abuse, theft or even homelessness. Pathological gamblers tend to be under the age of thirty. Six percent of gamblers in Canada commit suicide. The government profit from gambling in Canada is thirteen billion nationally. In Canada 340,000 people have a modern or wicked case of a gambling addiction.Eating Addi ctionsFood addictions affect mostly a persons health. Food addictions lead mostly to eating disorders, such(prenominal) as obesity, diabetes, bulimia and food allergies. An eating addiction is signaled the same way in our brains as an alcohol addiction. Recent studies on rats have proven that eating triggers a pleasure receptor in our brain. Ten percent of people with anorexia or bulimia are male. Eight percent of children in Canada are obese, and xx three percent are adults.Gaps in gosThe volume of agencies have no costs, no referrals, are wheelchair accessible and have age limited restrictions. The upstart internet addiction has left a gap in service, simply because it went so long before it was discovered, agencies are just now tally out ways to support thisaddiction. This makes it hard for someone with an Internet addiction to seek help due to the lack of support out there for the general public to use.Barriers in ServicesThe majority of services are available from ages th irteen plus. Which limits teens under the age of thirteen with addiction problems help. With todays society having an increasing amount of children drinking, this sets a bit of a barrier. Since there are no programs offered for children of a young age who have already begun drinking to seek help it surrenders the problem to grow instead of getting to it when it is still fresh and not yet a full-blown addiction. Although many services do not offer help to those who are disabled. Addiction services are generally offered only in English, which poses a problem for those who have immigrated to Canada or simply have grown up speaking a different manner of speaking. The time of days for addiction centers is limited, unless it is a housing service, most programs run on the nine to five clock, enabling those who seek help after hours from getting the service that is required by them.Local ServicesPersonal Development ProgramsMens masturbation Management CenterThis shelter is for men goi ng through withdrawals from drugs or alcohol. They offer a short-term residence. Also give information and education sessions for men in a safe environment. Also provide one on one counseling for individuals in purpose of defining specific needs and how to march them. They take in men who are inebriated, who are going through withdrawals or that are at high risk of falling into old patterns. Service for this center in 7 days a week 24 hours a day, there is no fee admission is immediate accordingly to fork out availability.Advocacy and Referral ProgramsMental health and Addictions Services in Grey BruceThis program also known as DART (drug and alcohol registry of treatment) is helpful for people with addictions or mental health problems locate treatment options. It also links local communities with assessment and referral programs for themselves or people that they know.Socialization ProgramsCAMH Center For Addictions and Mental Health The largest organization for addictions and m ental health in Canada. Its provides research, broad-based education offerings, clinical services and health promotion activities. They provide information on the best services around, their facilities allow you to locate research resource materials, and contribute to addictions and mental health system planning. They are open Monday to Friday 830- 430, they are only partially accessible, and only provide services in English.Rehab and Therapy CentersFGI WorldThis facilities helps youth with drug or alcohol based addictions. They work with clients one on one with any problems they are having. This is a private organization, and the program is only offered through referral. The program allows you to come and go as pleased, unless you are an involuntary client. The councilors help take you through the locomote that got you to where you are and also the choices that you made to get you there. Located on downtown Hamilton. The hours are 800am to 600 pm. Appointments are to be made no n otch inns are allowed.ConclusionThroughout this report, there have been examples of all types of addictions. Showing how increasingly they are on the rise, and that day-to-day a sensitiveaddiction is born. Without services being available to the new born addictions they continuously grow and there is no way to receive help for them. The amount of young teens becoming addicted to things such as drugs or alcohol has grown increasingly and services are yet to be prepared for that situation. Many of the gaps and barriers at heart these programs or services are what prevent people from seeking the help they need and deserve.It has been proven that not only are addictions physical they are majority psychological and require a great deal of acknowledgement from family, friends, support groups, and government funded programs, so that people can acquire the amount of treatment necessary. With language and hours of availability being a barrier many people with problems are not getting the h elp they deserve, Canada needs to broaden its options when it comes to addiction programs, allowing twenty-four hour services for people with serious or mild conditions. If the programs continue to enable people from receiving help the amount of people with addictions will continue to increase. Being aware of the problem is the first step to solving one.

Joseph Gobbels and Propaganda

Propaganda presents information primarily to influence mint. It generally does not provide information impartially or completely. Propaganda often presents facts selectively. Lying by Omission or sometimes including some untrue stories, thoughts is a general practice in propaganda, to justify an idea or to seek the support the people. Propaganda uses special messages to generate an emotional response to the information presented rather than a logical one.Since propaganda is generally used to win the support of the people for the government policies, the German government propaganda also aimed to sort out the support of the German people, people in the occupied countries and also it aimed to psychologically affect the people in the enemy territories. The German propagandas included the use of receiving set broadcasts, motion pictures, poster distributions and cartoons.The propaganda ministry worked in such a way that people would learn German culture and beliefs and also mainly th e Germanys right to overlook the world. Even when the war started turning against the axis of rotation powers, Germans said that they were trying to save the world from the evils of Communism.In Italy, Mussolini motivated the Italians with the dreams of re-establishing the ancient Rome. Italian propaganda also tried to derision the fighting ability of the Allied soldiers.Japanese government promised to the people of the occupied lands a share of the Greater East Asia, wealth to be shared in all eastern Asia under the rule of Japan, with the slogan Asia For Asians. The Japanese claimed that they were freeing Asia from European Rulers.In England, The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) claimed that they were open so that people would learn the truth. But in Germany, it was forbidden to watch BBC.In the United States (US), the government established the Office of War Information (OWI) to broadcast the US propaganda during the war. OWI broadcasted the US relieve oneself for the war the fight for a better world and seek the support of the people for it.He was born on 29 October 1897, in Rheydt, Germany into a working class family. He originally did not fit the national socialist stereotype figure. He was barely 5 feet (150cm) tall with dark eyes rather of blue and olive skin. His left foot was crippled and therefore noticeable limping. Against all the odds, he rose to the top and was appointed as the propaganda minister of the Nazi Germany.Goebbels earned a Ph.D. from Heidelberg University in 1921, writing his doctoral thesis on 18th-century romantic drama. He then worked as a journalist. He also wrote done for(predicate) novels and plays.Goebbels came into contact with the Nazi Party in 1923 during the French occupation of the Ruhr and became a member in 1924. He was appointed as the regional party leader of Berlin. In this position, he started to exhibit his propaganda skills, and combatted the local socialists and communist parties with the help of Nazi papers and the paramilitary troops. By 1928, he had risen in the National socialistic German Workers Party ranks to become one of its most prominent members. In this position, he helped Hitler to bring Nazis to the power in 1933.One of his very famous acts was the keen of books in Berlin in 1933, the books that are rejected by the Nazis. He aimed to pass the message to persuade both the Germans and the rest of the world for them to believe in the cause of the Nazi Germany.During WW2, Goebbels exerted totalitarian power and controlled all the media, publications, radio programs, motion pictures and the messages conveyed in all the arts performed in Germany and German dominated Europe. He perfected the swelled Lie technique of propaganda, which is based on the principle that a lie, if loud enough and repeated enough times, will be believed by the masses. Goebbels used sophisticated propaganda techniques to psychologically prepare the German people for aggressive war and the exterm ination of civilian populations. By late 1943, even when the tide of the war was turning against the Axis powers, Goebbels intensified his propaganda by urging the Germans to accept the idea of total war and mobilization.When it became evident that Germany lost the war, Goebbels killed himself and his own family with his firearm on 1 May 1945 in Berlin. There are lots of other stories and confusion about how he killed himself. It is believed that he first poisoned his six young children then he either cinch his wife Magda and then himself or ordered an SS soldier to shoot both of them. He also might have taken poison in rise to power to being shot. Their bodies were burned with gasoline and before buried. But since there was not enough gasoline to completely burn him, the Soviets Army was able to identify his corps.We should neer accept any delivered speech or idea without any supporting facts and try our best to make rational rather than emotional decisions. We should always st ay in mind that delivered speeches could be a simple Propaganda to effect our decisions. Further, we should never forget that the decisions we make and the actions we take based on those decisions always come on with us and affect our future.Referencehttps//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels

Dominant Management Philosophy of Whirlpool Corporation Essay

I hereby present the analysis of the dominant circumspection philosophy of Whirlpool Corporation for evaluating whether our caller-up shall acquire Whirlpool. Whirlpools management is strongly committed to build strong brands and a growing loyal consumer base via its brand rank creation strategy based on diversity, innovation, terms productivity and corporate social responsibility. Whirlpool knows the art of leveraging its wide array of strong brands to serve strategically different & geographically widespread markets. macrocosm is Whirlpool Corporations differentiating strategy giving it a significant competitive advantage. Every Whirlpool Brand aims at understanding the unique consumer necessarily and converting them into products and services, thus, creating unmatched customer loyalty resulting in high revenue growths and superior return to the global investors. Whirlpools revenue has grown by 7. 3 % it has returned $ 502 million to shareholders, during the year ended Decemb er 2007.Apart from strong brands, Whirlpool has a well diversified customer, product and employee base. A wide range of products allows the company to cater to a large and diverse range of consumers all across the globe, thus, providing it with diversified range of revenue streams. It strategically explores new markets and then uses its strong brands value creation strategies to enter those markets where product penetration level is still low. For example, India with a population of 1. meg and an expected home appliances market size of $ 4 billion clicked as a high growth market. Whirlpool has already captured 25% of Indian market. It has well defined code of ethics covering 14 aspects of note and the same is well-embedded throughout the organization. Whirlpool is listed 18th on World 100 Best Corporate Citizens by Business ethics magazine and among the Top 25 Most Respected U. S. Companies by the Reputation Institute. This demonstrates strong consumer trust, which can be leverag ed to fuel higher turnover.

Huntingtons’s Concept and Its Applicability to the Contemporary World Essay

Introduction Globalization and the trend in the politics has entered a new political schema subsequently the World War II and as such, it is has drawn the interest of political theorists who had hoped to re-define and predict the future outcomes of global politics. Among the different approaches, what had really attracted the attention of the media and the interested labour is Huntingtons concept on the Clash of Civilizations theory.Huntingtons stereotypical claims and predictions regarding future outcomes of global relations had uncannily matched with that of the drastic event of the Al-Qaedas besiege on September 11 on the Twin Towers. The event, which had caught global attention, is said to have been a direct pop-out from Huntingtons essay and that event was resultant of the skirmish between the differing cultures of the American superpower and the Muslims of Afghanistan. The ethnic conflict, albeit on global scale, would be the political pattern after the Cold War.The questio n is, is Huntingtons concept even applicable with the current trend of globalization? Here there is a basic assumption that conflicts arise from ethnic differences and it is on these differences which leave alone feed the forthcoming antagonism between the different nations. Al-Qaedas attack may have been likely accidental and that his reasons were not purely ethnic as in Huntingtons theory. In the paper, there is an attempt to investigate the flaws of Huntingtons Clash of Civilizations when placed in the larger context of globalization and international conflict.A native understanding of his paper first must be placated followed by criticisms and the more apt model that would fit the current trend for global political system. s The Clash of Civilizations is a theory proposed by political scientist Samuel P. Huntington in 1993 as a reaction to Fukuyamas book. Herein, Huntington expanded on the shift of global patterns after the Cold War from the economic to traditional whereby c onflicts are more of culture clash.The globalization trend would function in the traditional cultural sense and depart no longer be confounded on ideological clashes as in the philosophcal claims before. Huntingtons thesis is relatively simple to understand in the carriage that he had oversimplified and reduced everything It is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new demesne will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural.Nation states will remain the more or less powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future. His basic premise is the culture clash as a primary source of conflict and he divided the solid ground into differ ent ethnic groups representing the different civilizations, each embodying different religion African, Hindu, Western, Sinic, Orthodox, Islamic, Latin America and Japanese.From these different ethnic frontiers, will arise the future conflicts and he had cited the cases of India and Pakistan. What is most daunting of his perceptions is that the Superpower of America will face a decline and the shift will be on the combined powers of Sino-Islamic group. Equally daunting is Huntingtons concept that what had fueled this antagonism is the purposive role of teology in the different civilizations, most particularly, that of the Islams.

Is the Philippines Truly Free Essay

In terms of fashion, culture and economy, however, we cannot say the same. The Filipinos tranquillise suffer from colonial mentality. Music, fashion, customs and tradition and products of foreign countries, especially the so-called stateside, are still being patronized by most Filipinos, especially the youth who unabashedly mimic foreign singers, artists, including their lifestyles not minding to spend lots of money just to be in with these foreign idols. Thousands of Pinoys are also dying to migrate to other countries.As a member of the Filipino youth of today I moot that I can somehow make the Philippines truly free by reversing the above negative attitudes. First, I will start from myself. I will think, speech and act like a true Filipino. I will live by the Filipino values like being polite and courteous, using po, opo, respect my parents, the elders and be fair to all. I will patronize Filipino made products so we can save the dollars of our country. I will visit and pull ah ead visit to the local tourist spots. I shall lead by example by taking care of the environment.I will recycle plastics and use perishable trash as organic fertilizer. By doing so, we can boost our countrys economy and awaken the sense of nationalism in each and all Filipino. Not only will our country be appreciated by our fellow Filipinos, but also by foreigners locally and internationally. Lastly, I will backing myself informed of the current social and national issues so I can express my views thereon. I will encourage the youth to do the same so we can preserve the democracy in our country alive and help it move forward.

Police Brutality Essay

Police savageness occurs daily across America. Police viciousness can come in various forms, counting lethal and nonlethal get out. Comprehending the exact commonness of guard brutality is complex, beca engage of the inconsistency in describing patrol brutality. The trouble in differentiating among justified and unjustified crowd. Police interactions ofttimes can be misconstrued, or sometimes turned around against an officer.Questionable behavior and complaints against officers can be filed by even the most violent of criminals. Often, the officer may restrain a potentially precarious citizen, and be acc single-valued functiond of excessive line. Overall, this results in not only a mark against the institution of right enforcement and the officer specifically, however also in a lack of action in the future enforcements. Does the social function of excessive force serve as purpose in reducing and controlling crime? How is the habitual affected by practice of law brutality ? How does push-down store media affect police brutality? This essay go out further carefully examine the problems of police brutality.The use of excessive force could be used negatively or positively in reducing and controlling crime. Police officers have a rough trade to do, and some of the circumstances they face are as intense as they are risky. The use of force is essential to controlling suspects, and to avoid suspects from harming officers and others. Suspects often become forceful when detained or when they believe they have teensy-weensy or nothing to lose. In a flawless system authorities would use only a reasonable amount of force essential to subdue and apprehend the suspect, hardly such a text-perfect surmisal fails to take into justification the actualities of life. Many circumstances of alleged police brutality comes from unnecessary force clashes. contrary suspects are tough to control and police must rely on training, non-lethal, and lethal force to nurture suspects.Further, use of force by a police officer has a possible deterrent issue on crime. In demand to accomplish deterrence, these influences are essential inevitability of detection, harshness of punishment, and swiftness ofpenalty. Permitting police officers to use any technique needed to detain and take suspects to justice would let police officers to gain all required basics to deter future criminal conduct. The criminal would be deterred from committing crime under the awareness that if caught by the police, direct and harsh reprimand would be inflicted.This moment would deter criminals from future crimes, but also citizens learning of the strict punishment. In fact, in a 1991 study of 57 U.S. cities, economist Dale Cloninger form an inverse relationship between the rate of civilians killed by police and the non-homicide violent crime rate for a one percent increase in police killings, violent crime decreases one-sixth of a percent.numerous disputes against allowing unju stified use of force by police, considering this cruel mien has harmful consequences for the public. In addition to the washy faith in the police on the social take aim and the confrontational consequences for police officers, police brutality also destructively affects the victim, who will probably undergo physical injuries and psychological effects from the event. The cause and subtraction of these injuries is reliant on the kind of force used against the suspect injury could vary from bruises on the humble level, to eternal physical disfigurement, emotional damage, or death on the severe level.All wounds from excessive use of force have led to reduce faith in police officers. Other concerns could lead to the victims of brutality, with change magnitude discrimination and revengeful offending because of a restraint to call the police. When the police use excessive force on a suspect even when a suspect is not resisting, the publics level of skepticism against the police is amp lified. If people trust an authority is genuine, they will willingly comply with the guidelines, choices, and social measures of the authority. ebullient force by police can inflame powerful community responses, predominantly when it is unjustified or has the form of being unjustified. For display case, there was a strong negative reaction in the aftermath of the shaft of Oscar Grant in Oakland (2009) and the shooting of Shawn Bell in New York City (2006), and riots occurred after. Communities regularly react negatively to police brutality urban communities nearly constantly respond negatively to police assaults of minorities. These actions hurtpolice-community transaction and can weaken citizens perceived respect for police authority. In some cases, the community also experiences the reach of police brutality on its victims.Citizens acquire majority of their info regarding police activity from the media. The media often lay out a slanted picture of the role of police to the pu blic. When police brutality arises, it often appears in the media, receiving tending to the problem and inspiring reform. Eliminating police brutality from society is an apparently impossible mission, particularly if society gives police officers authority and discretion. Mass Media has a massive effect on police brutality the types of actions that are brought on by police brutality brings negative media attention, further damaging the reputation of the police within society. An example of the power of the media exposure with police use of force can be seen in the Dont Taser Me Bro incident from the University of Florida in 2004. Student Andrew Meyer was arrested during a forum with visiting U.S. Senator John Kerry, after he demanded chafe to a closed microphone, confronted the senator with questions, and then forcefully resisted officers who attempted to remove him. after(prenominal) the officers decision to use a Taser gun on Meyer, controversy and media attention exploded.In a ddition to negative consequences for police officers, there could be negative penalties for individual officers, with civil liability suits, criminal prosecution, and job loss. The media often feature widespread instances or patterns of misconduct by officers or by entire police administrations it has steered to greater police liability and administrative change. Mass media has the influence to spread anywhere and when an event similar to Andrew Meyer occurs its one of those cases. Moreover mass media doesnt just have impact for just the officers it marks the victims in the sense that they need to break with public knowledge of the tragedy that impacted there life at that certain point in time. Mass media also has role in altering public confidence in police officers. After media exposure of police misconduct, blue ribbon panels, or commissions, have been given the task of investigating the genius and degree of the misconduct, corruption, or brutality to introduce reform.In Conclu sion, I feel that police brutality has immense impact on the world, just because you dont see it in front of your eyes doesnt mean its not happening. there are police brutality cases and events that happen that are inscrutable to people. Perhaps no issue can impact on the personal and professional career of a law enforcement officer more than a lawsuit alleging excessive use of force. Most officers will use non-deadly force far more frequently than they will use deadly force. The constitutional standard for using any force, whether deadly or not is the Fourth Amendment standard objective reasonableness.In Graham V. Connor base on totality of circumstances the reasonableness of particular use of force must judge from the linear perspective of a reasonable officer on the scene rather than the 20/20 vision of hindsight. There is no perfect answer when using force. In the eyes of the media or public, use of force is always going to be unjustifiable, until the public and the medi a, are educated on the standards that the court uses to determine if the use of force was justifiable. I dont think police brutality will go away that easily, but I think in time cases of police brutality will be reduced.Work cited freezing A. Natasha NEWS MEDIA AND POLICE. _Encyclopedia of Law Enforcement._ Thousand Oaks Sage Publications, 2005. _Credo Reference_. Web. 14 February 2013.Boggess, Lyndsay N., Christopher Donner, and Jonathan Maskaly. Police Brutality. Key Issues in Crime and penalty Police and Law Enforcement. Thousand Oaks Sage Publications, 2011. Credo Reference. Web. 12 February 2013.Chevigny, Paul G. Police Brutality. Encyclopedia of Violence, quietude and Conflict. Oxford Elsevier Science & Technology, 2008. Credo Reference. Web. 12 February 2013.Federal Law Enforcement Training Center Legal Division handbook USE OF FORCEHomeland Security Publications, 2010

Arms Trade

I have seen how easy it is for nuclear contamination to occur, and how hard it is to clean it up. Do nations possess nuclear, chemical and biological weapons because of fear of attack from some other nation, or is it because without them the fast cannot exploit the weak? Andreas T. The arms trade is a major cause of human rights abuses. Some g overnments exit more on military expenses than on social development, communications infrastructure and health combined. While every(prenominal) nation has the right and the need to ensure its security, in these changing times, arms requirements and procurements may need to salmagundi too.Each year, around $45-60 billion worth of arms sales ar agreed. Some two-thirds of sales are made to developing countries. The 5 permanent members of the UN Security Council (US, Russia, France, United Kingdom and China), together with Germany and Italy account for over 80% of the arms sold between 2001 and 2008. Some of the arms sold go to regimes where human rights violations totallyow for occur. Corruption often accompanies arms sales due to the large sums of money involved.World military spending had reduced since the Cold War ended, but a few nations such as the US deem high level spending. In recent years, global military expenditure has increased again and is at a time comparable to Cold War levels again. Recent data shows global spending at over $1. 4 trillion, annually (or $1. 2 trillion at constant 2005 prices). The highest military spender is the US accounting for notwithstanding under half of the worlds spending, more than the rest of the G7 (most economically advanced countries) combined, and more than all its potential enemies, combined.

From the Perspective of the Priest Child Abuser Essay

The term A Priest Child Abuser Speaks from the book orca of the Soul was contributed by a priest who wishes to remain anonymous. He is a self-confessed child maltreater during his priesthood, and by composing this, he wishes to share his experiences and his gradual climb back into society. He also believes that writing this article would provide a lesson for both the victimizers and their victims, and hopes that the victimizers would avoid committing such hideous faultys towards their victims.In the article, the priest shares his expedition of self-realization as he slowly vaporized the demon that was poisoning his soul and coercing him to do such crimes against children. The priest recalls that he was convicted for abusing children sexually, psychologically, and emotionally in the 1980s, and directenced to 14 months in a minimum security facility. He believes that he was lucky, knowing that a similar child-abusing priest was sentenced for 20 years of hard labor. The priest mentions that disembodied spirit was tough for him both inside and exposeside of prison.He felt that a lot of people resented him for what he did to children, and believed that what happened was just a lie, no matter how true it was. Some officers, notably a lieutenant who despised him, bullied and toyed with him. Other prisoners were disgusted at his presence, refused to befriend him, or intimidated him often. For his size, he thought that he would not stand a chance, and he saw that avoiding conflict was the best solution. However, not all of these people resented him or was afraid of him.He recalls making some friends while in prison, ranging from guards to cell mates. They supported him and were sympathetic of him, specially at the time when the lieutenants abusive nature went a bit overboard. enchantment in prison, he fought for the system to give him therapy for the sickness he believes that he was carrying. He won that appeal, and the court sent him to therapy twice a we ek. The Sex and Love Addicts Anonymous (SLAA) provided the opportunity for him to realize the root from which this sickness stemmed.While trying to heal himself, he also experienced rejection from close friends and acquaintances. Life was certainly difficult for him who was mark as a child abuser, which is why he wanted to reform himself in order to reenter society. During his SLAA therapies, he recalled his childhood which was filled with fear, anxiety, misfortune, and harassment. It was at that time when he idolized his parish sc come inmaster and weirdly fell in sleep together with him, prompting him into having a sexual relationship with him. It was a very traumatic experience that he knew he had to pull out from.He deducted that this might be the root of his sickness all along, as it was reinforced by an authority figure that it was okay to do it. He was also searching for a convey figure, since his real father abandoned him and his family, and his mother declared him as the head of the household. When he entered the parish, he wished to second the children who had no father figure and had an emotionally miserable life. Things boiled over, and pretty soon, he was sexually come to with these young boys. One boy told his parents, and this made him realize his mistake.He mustered the strength to tell their parents that they need straightaway therapy, but was arrested in the process when one therapist told the police about him. When he finally got out of prison, he wanted to mend the ties with his family and clear things up with them. However, they failed to hear him out, which was the reason that drove him into an unstable plead in the first place. He confronted his scoutmaster and felt betrayed by his insights on the issue involving child abuse, telling him that it was wrong while he was regretting the fact that he believed in his scoutmaster.The damage has been done to him, and he believes that he of necessity to accept the consequences of his action s and just move on. He mentions that it left a black hole in his life, upon which he was initially placing things to fill that void. However, he realized that it was not the right course of action as he was building his life around that hole, completely avoiding it. Thus, he wished to enter the ministry again in order to cooperate others that are trapped in the same dark cell in which he broke out from, although not completely.The priest mentions that gradually, he was able to recover his life and reform himself into the person that everyone knew before the incident. He was also able to reenter society as himself once again. Hence, he wishes to share his experiences to the world through this article in order to let people know that victims could become victimizers themselves one day, if they are not tempered immediately.References A priest child abuser speaks. (1990). In S. J. Rossetti (Ed. ), Slayer of the Soul Child Abuse and the Catholic Church (pp. 99-111). Mystic, CT Twenty-Th ird Publications.

Sketches by Boz – Charles Dickens

Sketches by Boz The Streets Morning The Victorian London streets is a familiar setting of Dickens industrial plant with Oliver Twist and A Christmas Carol being some his most memorable works. In this passage hellion offers the reviewer an alternative London, mavin without the energetic crowds but instead a much more(prenominal) cark place where the streets atomic number 18 dull and conductless. We are met with a silent neighbourhood before the sun has rise and through the use of characters, setting and compares the reader receives a rich picture of the sunless streets.The passage begins with the foundation of the Victorian London scene on a summer morning. The reader is taken by wonder by the opening sentence where The streets of London on a summers morning are described to be most striking. demon interesting choice of words places the pre-dawn London scene in the summer, a measure of fondness and sun, however we are offered a nineteenth century London that is typically portrayed with a bleak, grey backdrop.Few people roam this neighbourhood a branch from those whose unfortunate person pursuits of pleasure, or scarcely less unfortunate pursuits of business, cause them to be well acquainted with the scene. This leads to the belief that each summers morning starts off like this, pale and regret the people who happen to be awake at this dreary hour are the rogues who remain. each(prenominal) just as depressed as the other(a), and boths search for something more than the blind acceptance of a gruff existence the cause of their endurance of this sad atmosphere.It is quiet with an air of cold solitary, desolation about the quiet streets and the buildings are quiet and closely-shut. It is empty and through the buildings it is shown how lifeless the location is with e reallything closed off from the outside world, preventing all chance of exposure to the dismal air. by dint ofout the day the roads are swarming with life and bustle the comparison of their appearance early in the morning is very impressive.The impression that they leave is one of sadness, something that one who has observed the area at each time will remember due to the vast differences. daemon shows that this time of day is for the most unruly of people with the impoverished clearing out of the neighbourhood and the more sober and orderly part of the population not yet awakened. Emphasis is put on how hapless the roads are at predawn to the point they are practically uninhabitable, except by those with nowhere else to go.Dickens draws watchfulness to the places where there would typically be masses of people The coach-stands in the larger thoroughfares are decrepit the night-houses are closed and the chosen promenades of profligate misery are empty. This creates an mental image of ghostlike platforms and buildings, usually brimming with life and movement during the day, now empty with even the degenerates tucked away. Despite the forbidding, dead mood that permeates throughout the area, the last is still warm and humid a partially opened bedroom-window here and there, bespeaks the heat of the weather.Through the unrecorded weather, the atmosphere becomes tense and heavy, and with this tension there is sickness and the uneasy which contributes a feeling of claustrophobia to the passage, making the reader feel the soreness of the scene. The Victorian London presented to the reader by Dickens is a grim and deserted place where few dare to walk the streets. The rich description of the scene places great emphasis on the lack on habitation and the grey city, and the depression within it before the sun rises.Dickens use of language in this piece is memorable for his emphasis on several words and phrases, his literary techniques convey the insipidness of the passage and the street scene. The oxymoron of the words unfortunate and pleasure indicates the futility of trying to find happiness on a predawn London street through with the p ursuit of pleasure still unpromising. Tautology places extra stress on words with the same meaning such as cold, solitary, desolation conveying to the reader the lonely imperturbability of this area of London before sunrise.The awkward juxtaposition at the end of the first paragraph signifies the anxiousness of one in the streets and over the quiet, closely-shut buildings, which throughout the day are swarming with life and bustle, that is very impressive. With the whimsical order of words the reader feels the discomfort that is present in the neighbourhood at this unpleasant time. A play on words with the drunken world who staggers heavily along with the burden of the drinking song. This can translate to the heavy burden of being drunk and having to find ones way home in such state. Dickens clever phraseology is highly ffective, managing to send the message to the reader with out being overly overt, allowing for the text to flow. Alliteration is ever present in the narrative with the drunken, the dissipated and the wretched have disappeared portion as a notable example. The harsh D sounds gives way to the austerity of the streets and slows down the reading of the sentence. Through the placement of wretched in amid drunken, dissipated and disappeared focus falls on wretched, then becoming the strongest word in the sentence to describe the usual patrons within this neighbourhood.Sibilance in the sentence the tranquillity of death is over the streets evokes the sensation of the silence in the London scene, with the central word death openhanded it an air of eeriness. The overall colour of the passage is sunless. It begins at predawn before the sun has risen, creating imagery of darkness and changes very little as it progresses eventually leading to the grey, sombre light of daybreak and death is gives its shade to the streets with its very hue imparted to them.The colourlessness of the extract links back to the mood of the time, and its solemn pace with the typical image of nineteenth century London easily visualised. Dickens style and techniques build up the depression and add discomfort through repetition and the use of sounds and sentence structures, these subtle additions manage to express the solitude on this bad-tempered London summers morning. Recurring themes of loneliness, exiguity and vapidity carry the tone of this piece, through these Dickens communicates the melancholy and dejection set about an hour before sunrise.The loneliness of the streets is continuously referred to with mention of its situation during the day where it is thronged at other times by a busy, eager, crowd. By contrasting alternative times Dickens shows the differences between dawn and the day, this relates back to the torpor felt before the sun has risen. When introducing the drunk and the homeless man, they are referred to as the last. The finality of the statement shows that these men are the final remnants of life on the street and when th ey take to their hollows then there shall be nothing left but the cold misery.Destitution is conveyed through the drunken man and the houseless vagrant one whos sorrows has made him look for pleasure in the drinking song and the other whom mendicancy and police have left in the streets. The consonance in penury and police uses the sharp P to place significance on the two things that the beggar would fear the most. There is a pang of good-will felt for him having to coil up his chilly limbs in some paved corner, to dream of food and warmth and one pities him even more to be left in the dreadful neighbourhood only finding peace when the sun is about to rise.However it further adds to the scene as he has become a part of it. Pre-dawns remaining occupants are compared with the more sober and orderly part of the population confirming that they are on the lower end of the population, unfit to be seen by the light of day. A lack of life is perspicuous in the location that Dickens illu strates. The occasional policeman is the last man standing, yet he is listlessly gazing on the deserted prospect before him unable to muster up energy to do his indebtedness as he has been so swamped by depression, with no expectations for the rest of the day. A rakish-looking cat runs stealthily crosswise the road, changing the setting adding a brief flash of excitement. The cat is lively and cunning, he has kept up(p) his sense even in this dismal place. When compared with the lethargic police man and the uncoordinated drunk his slyness is impressive and full of life amongst the somber scene. The houses of habitation present no signs of life another contradiction with even the place where people are living are inanimate.All is silent on this sad poverty stricken street and Dickens makes use of these features to bring out the crippling depression. The Streets Morning by Charles Dickens presents us with a bleak London scene before dawn overwhelmed with wretchedness and misery. The cold tone and bleak setting described provides the reader with the image of an unhappy place void of any intrust for its inhabitants. Through comparisons and contrast of the lively crowd of the day and the grave souls before the sunrise the reader feels the melancholy of the Victorian street. Ilyana Bell

Compare and Contrast Between Egypt and China

Clinical Forum The Lexicon and phonemics Interactions in Langu while Acqui rideion Holly L. Storkel1 Michele L. Morrisette indium University, Bloomington 24 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 American lyric-Language-Hearing Association 01611461/02/33010024 abridgment The purpose of this paper is to underscore the importance of the link betwixt lexical and phonologic encyclopaedism by considering followment by electric razorren beyond the 50- intelligence activity stage and by applying cognitive gravels of spoken phrase bear on to outgrowth. lexical and phonologic variants t chapeau nurture been shown o sour percept and deed crossways the lifespan argon considered sexual relation to their potential role in development by preschool tiddlerren. The rig of these lexical and phonologic variables on knowledge, toil, and encyclopaedism argon discussed in the context of a ii- commission connectiveist puzzle of spok en rallying cry unconscious process. The archetype appears to offer insights into the mazy fundamental interaction amid the lexicon and phonology and whitethorn be useful for clinical diagnosis and discussion of electric shaverren with run-in controls. KEY WORDS quarrel development, lexicon, phonology, wishness meanness, phonotactic hazardLSHSS To acquire the native expression, a child must do dickens things Learn the course of the language and extract the relevant phonologic characteristics of those course. For the most severalise, the learning of language and proceeds has been investigated in restrictedly. That is, some lines of investigation concentrate exclusively on how the voice communication of the language are acquired (e. g. , Carey & Bartlett, 1978 Dollaghan, 1985 Heibeck & Markman, 1987 Jusczyk & Aslin, 1995 Rice & Woodsm separately(prenominal), 1988), whereas other lines of research examine how the graves of the language emerge (e. g. , Di nnsen, Chin, Elbert, &Po healthy, 1990 Dyson, 1988 Smit, Hand, Freilinger, Bernthal, & Bird, 1990 Stoel-Gammon, 1985). The mutual influence of lexical and phonologic development is an knowledge domain that has received only limited attention. The few descriptive and experimental studies that have addressed this issue, however, bid anterior conclusion for an interaction amidst lexical and phonologic development. Descriptive studies primarily have examined the family relationship amid the phonological characteristics of babble and first spoken language. Studies of typically develop children have shown that first linguistic communication are phonologically quasi(prenominal) to babble (e. . , Oller, Wieman, Doyle, & Ross, 1976 Stoel-Gammon & Cooper, 1984 Vihman, Ferguson, & Elbert, 1986 Vihman, Macken, Miller, Simmons, & Miller, 1985). For example, the distri notwithstandingion of consonants and the syllable social structure of first news shows are identical to that of ba bble (Vihman et al. , 1985). This association among lexical and phonological development is ascertained in children with precocious language development as well as in children with delayed language development (Paul & Jennings, 1992 Stoel-Gammon & Dale, 1988 Thal, Oroz, & McCaw, 1995 Whitehurst, Smith, Fischel, Arnold, & Lonigan, 991). In especial(a), children who know umpteen rule books list to pay back a great variety of give outs and plump combinations, whereas children who know few spoken language tend to produce a limited variety of give ways and bottom combinations. There appears to be a potentially robust relationship between the phonological characteristics of first al-Qurans and babble. This is suggestive of an intimate connection between formulate teaching and productive phonology. In addition to descriptive evidence, experimental studies furnish further countenance for the hypothesis that lexical and phonological development influence unrivalled some ot her. For xample, maven carry of tender children with expressive language delay demonstrated that discourse focused on 1 Currently connected with the University of Kansas. Storkel Morrisette The Lexicon and Phonology 25 increase a childs expressive vocabulary led to subsequent improvements in phonological newfangledty (Girolametto, Pearce, & Weitzman, 1997 scarcely see Whitehurst, Fischel et al. , 1991). This decision suggests that the breadth of a childs lexical knowledge whitethorn influence phonological acquisition. An intricacy of vocabulary in this case went hand in hand with an expansion of the sound musical arrangement.In complement, there is experimental evidence that phonological characteristics whitethorn influence lexical acquisition. In particular, infants have been shown to produce novel voice communication quiet of sounds that are in their phonetic inventory more(prenominal) often than other novel address composed of sounds that are out of their phoneti c inventory (Leonard, Schwartz, Morris, & Chapman, 1981 Schwartz & Leonard, 1982). Here, the childs phonetic inventory influenced the acquisition of new terms. Taken unneurotic, descriptive and experimental evidence suggests that phonological development and term acquirement utually influence one another, but one limitation of this work is its emphasis on infants who produce fewer than 50 rowing (but see Shillcock & Westermann, 1998 Stoel- Gammon, 1998). This is relevant because a rapid increase in rate of word schooling has been noted as children cross the 50-word limen, leading some researchers to posit a fundamental change in the word acquire process (Behrend, 1990 Bloom, 1973 Dore, 1978 Gopnik & Meltzoff, 1986 Mervis & Bertrand, 1994). Also at this point, it is hypothesized that children transition from a holistic to an analytic phonological system, which may demarcate a fundamental hange in phonological learning (Ferguson & Farwell, 1975 Vihman, Velleman, & McCune, 19 94). The purpose of this paper is to examine this link between lexical and phonological development by considering the acquisition process beyond the 50-word stage and by applying a cognitive shape of spoken word acquaintance and production to this issue. In particular, lexical and phonological variables that have been shown to influence perception and production across the lifespan get out be considered relative to their potential influence on learning by preschool children. Furthermore, a feign that has been sed to explain spoken word touch in the in full substantial system of adults is used to fork up a framework for understanding the interaction between the lexicon and phonology in development. The term spoken word affect refers collectively to the act of perceiving and producing run-in in spoken language. The paper is organized to first provide background to the lexical variables of word frequency and propinquity density and the phonological variable of phonotactic p rob competency. A dickens- internal prototype ride of spoken word processing is introduced. This model depicts two types of mental models, terminology versus sounds, providing a eans of understanding the interaction between these two disaccordent standards. The model is hence applied to spoken word processing in the developing system of children and to lexical and phonological learning. Finally, the interaction between the lexicon and phonology will be reconsidered by examining the role of lexical variables in sound learning and phonological variables in word learning by preschool children who have surpassed the 50-word stage. A discussion of the implications of these lexical and phonological variables for clinical diagnosis and handling will desist the article. BACKGROUND TO LEXICAL ANDPHONOLOGICAL VARIABLES Two lexical characteristics that have emerged as relevant predictors of spoken word processing are word frequency and propinquity density. Word frequency is the subj ect of clock a word cash in ones chipss in the language. For example, sit is an precious word occurring only 67 times in a indite assay of 1 million run-in. In contrast, these is a condescend word occurring 1,573 times in a written sample of 1 million voice communication (KucUera & Francis, 1967). 2 Turning to neighborhood density, wrangling presumptively are organized into similarity neighborhoods in the mental lexicon base on phonological similarity.In particular, it is assumed that a similarity neighborhood includes all of the words differing from a given word by a one phoneme substitution, deletion, or addition (Luce & Pisoni, 1998). For example, neighbors of sit include words such as sip, sat, hit, it, and spit and neighbors of these include words such as those, tease, and ease. The number of neighbors defined in this way is the words neighborhood density. In total, sit has 36 neighbors and these has 9 neighbors (Nusbaum, Pisoni, & Davis, 1984). Thus, sit is said to reside in a laborious neighborhood because it has legion(predicate) neighbors, whereas these is said to eside in a flimsy neighborhood because it has relatively few neighbors. A phonological characteristic that appears influential in spoken word processing is phonotactic luck. unrivalled observation that has emerged from studies of language structure is that certain sound patterns are more likely to occur than others. This likelihood of sound occurrence is termed phonotactic prob mogul. Phonotactic probability broadly is determined by counting the words in the language that contain a particular sound or sound pattern as well as the number of times those words occur (see Jusczyk, Luce, & Charles-Luce, 1994 Luce, Goldinger,Auer, & Vitevitch, 2000 Storkel, 2001 Storkel & Rogers, 2000 Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). To illustrate, the sound pattern of sit is a parking area sound sequence in English. The undivided sounds (/s/, /I/, /t/) frequently occur in their given word positio ns in many frequent words of the language. For example, word-initial /s/ occurs in the words seat, safe, said, sat, sun, surge, soon, soot, soap, song, sock, south, soil, and size, as well as in many other words of the language. In addition, the adjacent sounds in sit (/sI/, /It/) frequently occur together in many frequent lexical items.The sound combination /sI/ is found in the words sing, sip, sick, sin, and sill, as well as in other English words. In contrast, the sound pattern of these is a elevated sound sequence, having individual sounds (/D/, /i/, /z/) 2Word frequency counts are visible(prenominal) from a variety of sources including adult written (e. g. , KucUera & Francis, 1967), adult spoken (e. g. , Brown, 1984), child written (e. g. , Rinsland, 1945), and child spoken (e. g. , Kolson, 1960) databases. 26 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 and sound combinations (/Di/, /iz/) that occur in relatively few words of the language.I n fact, word initial /D/ is found only in the words this, them, then, thus, their, those, that, and their, and the sound combination /Di/ is not contained in any other words of the language. MODEL OF WORD PROCESSING The lexical variables of word frequency and neighborhood density and the phonological variable of phonotactic probability reportedly influence adults perception and production. This influence may be accounted for by a tworepresentation model of word processing (e. g. , Gupta & MacWhinney, 1997 Luce et al. , 2000). 3 This model may potentially provide insights into the complex interaction etween the lexicon and phonology in development, but the characteristics of the model and its victor in capturing spoken word processing by adults will first be considered. An illustration of this model is given in Figure 1 for the word sit and in Figure 2 for the word these. The two types of representations in the model are lexical and phonological. The lexical representation correspon ds to a word as a whole unit. In Figures 1 and 2, the lexical representation for the word sit, /sIt/, and these, /Diz/, is denoted by rectangles. In contrast, the phonological representation corresponds to the individual sounds or sound sequences.In Figures 1 and 2, the phonological representations for the words sit, /s/, /I/, and /t/, and these, /D/, /i/, and /z/, are illustrated by the open circles. The structure of the lexical representation may influence perception and production by adults. Likewise, the characteristics of the phonological representation may mutant a role in adult spoken word processing. Interactions between lexical and phonological representations may as well as occur in adult word credit entry and production. Each of these issues will be considered in turn. lexical Representations This two-representation model is a connectionist model.One feature of a connectionist model is that representations can be emotional. That is, hearing or idea about a word provi des external activating to a lexical representation. For a word to be certifyd or produced, the activation of its representation must image a set activation doorway. An activation threshold refers to the amount of activation that must accumulate in order for the representation to become available to consciousness. It is at this point that the perceiveer recognizes the word or that the speaker selects the word to be produced. Representations can differ from one another in their resting threshold. The resting threshold efers to the initial level of activation of a representation in the beginning further external activation is accrued either by hearing the word or by thinking of the word. Past experience with the language has been proposed to alter the resting threshold of lexical representations. particularally, when a lexical representation is frequently activated for science or production, the resting threshold supposedly increases. This provides a mechanism for learning th e characteristics of the language, videlicet word frequency. Thus, words that are frequently recognized or produced presumably will have a higher(prenominal) resting threshold than words hat are uniquely recognized or produced. In Figures 1 and 2, resting threshold is depicted by the thickness of the rectangles. Heavier rectangles represent higher resting thresholds lighter rectangles represent get resting thresholds. The lexical representation of the frequent word /Diz/ in Figure 2 has a darker rectangle indicating a higher resting threshold than the lexical representation of the peculiar word /sIt/ in Figure 1. The implication of this difference in resting threshold for perception or production 3Note that the two-representation model we describe is a simplified and generic rendition of those described by Luce et al. 2000 and Gupta & MacWhinney, 1997. The interested reader is referred to the original manuscripts for complete details of the full models. Also, we consider the ab ility of this model to account for two perception and production, although the original models focus primarily on one tantrum of spoken word processing. Figure 1. Illustration of a two-representation connectionist model of word processing for the word sit. lexical representations are illustrated with rectangles. The thickness of the rectangle indicates the resting threshold as determined by word frequency (e. g. , sit is peculiar).repressive connections between words are indicated by lines terminating in circles. The number of connections between words illustrates neighborhood density (e. g. , the neighborhood of sit is gravid). phonological representations are illustrated with circles. The thickness of the circle indicates the resting threshold base on phonotactic probability (e. g. , /s/, /I/, and /t/ are uncouthalty). Facilitory connections between sounds are indicated by lines terminating in arrows. The thickness of the connecting line indicates the capacity of the relat ionship based on phonotactic probability (e. g. /sI/ and /It/ are viridity). Storkel Morrisette The Lexicon and Phonology 27 is that words with higher resting thresholds (i. e. , frequent words) are already more activated at rest than are words with lower resting thresholds (i. e. , infrequent words). As a result, these frequent words should require less external activation than infrequent words to reach the activation threshold for recognition or production and, thus, recognition or production should be facilitated. In fact, studies of spoken word recognition and production with adults support this claim. Adults recognize frequent words more chop-chop nd more accurately than infrequent words (Landauer & Streeter, 1973 Luce & Pisoni, 1998) and produce frequent words faster and more accurately than infrequent words (Dell, 1990 Dell & Reich, 1981 Huttenlocher & Kubicek, 1983 Old expanse & Wingfield, 1965 Stemberger & MacWhinney, 1986 Vitevitch, 1997). This influence of experience on resting thresholds alike allows for the possibility of individual differences across speakers because the exact resting threshold of a given word may go from speaker to speaker based on a particular speakers unique language experience.Another feature of this two-representation connectionist model is that relationships among words are represented by connections. Connections between words are illustrated by lines in Figures 1 and 2. These connections are distinguished because they allow activation to spread between related words, damping or amplifying the related lexical representations activation. In this way, related lexical representations can influence the activation of the bearing lexical representation. The presence of two antagonistic processes, damping versus amplifying, are important in capturing decrements in process and improvements in erformance, respectively. Damping activation is depicted in the model by repressive connections amplifying activation is depicted by facilitory connections. An inhibitory connection damps the activation of the connected representation, thereby impeding that representation from reaching the activation threshold for recognition or production. In this case, recognition or production of the word would be slower or less accurate. In contrast, a facilitory connection amplifies the activation of the connected representation, thereby helping that representation reach the activation threshold for recognition or production.In this case, recognition or production of the word would be faster or more accurate. In Figures 1 and 2, inhibitory connections are depicted by lines terminating in modify circles and facilitory connections are depicted by lines terminating in arrows. similarity membership is depicted by inhibitory connections between related lexical representations. For example, the lexical representation /sIt/ in Figure 1 has inhibitory connections to the lexical representations of all of its neighbors, such as / sut/, /pIt/, and /nIt/. Likewise, the lexical representation /Diz/ in Figure 2 has inhibitory onnections to its neighbors, such as /DoUz/, and /tiz/. Note that not all of the neighbors of sit and these are dis laddered in Figures 1 and 2 due to space limitations. For example, spit is omitted as a neighbor of sit. The specialness of these connections are also based on the degree of association between words. Thus, words that are more similar to one another will spread more activation between each other. In Figures 1 and 2, the violence of a connection is depicted by the thickness of the line. Heavier lines indicate stronger associations than lighter lines. Note that connections between lexical representations are all imilar in strength, as indicated by the uniform thickness of the lines. In Figure 1, the lexical representation /sIt/ has equally strong connections to /sut/, /pIt/, and /nIt/, as well as to all of its other neighbors. Similarly, in Figure 2, the lexical representation /Diz/ has equally strong connections to /DoUz/, /tiz/, and all of its neighbors. Thus, all neighbors of a word are considered equally related to the word. The importance of this architecture for perception and production is that the number of neighbors determines the degree of activation damping for the cigarette word. A word like sit, which resides in a slurred neighborhood, will eceive inhibition from many more words than a word like these, which resides in a s analyse neighborhood. This leads to great damping of activation for sit relative to these. As a result, a word from a obscure neighborhood will be impeded in reaching the activation threshold for recognition or production. This claim is once once more back up by data Figure 2. Illustration of a two-representation connectionist model of word processing for the word these. lexical representations are illustrated with rectangles. The thickness of the rectangle indicates the resting threshold as determined by word frequen cy (e. g. these is frequent). Inhibitory connections between words are indicated by lines terminating in circles. The number of connections between words illustrates neighborhood density (e. g. , the neighborhood of these is sparse). Phonological representations are illustrated with circles. The thickness of the circle indicates the resting threshold based on phonotactic probability (e. g. , /D/, /i/, and /z/ are sublime). Facilitory connections between sounds are indicated by lines terminating in arrows. The thickness of the connecting line indicates the strength of the relationship based on phonotactic probability (e. . , /Di/ and /iz/ are archaic). 28 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 from studies of word processing in adults. Adults recognize words from dense neighborhoods more soft and less accurately than they do words from sparse neighborhoods (Luce & Pisoni, 1998 Luce, Pisoni, & Goldinger, 1990). Likewise, word pairs from dense neighborhoods are produced more slowly than are word pairs from sparse neighborhoods (Goldinger & Summers, 1989, but see Vitevitch, 2001a). 4 Phonological Representations The second type of representation in the model is the honological representation. It has been proposed that two aspects of the phonological representation are affected by phonotactic probabilityresting threshold and connection strength. Considering resting threshold, recall that language experience alters resting threshold. As a result, sounds that are unremarkably encountered in recognition or production will likely have higher resting thresholds than those that are encountered rarely. In Figure 1, the phonological representation /s/, /I/, and /t/, has dark circles, indicating a higher resting threshold because these sounds uncouthly occur in the language.In contrast, in Figure 2, the phonological representation /D/, /i/, and /z/,5 has light circles, indicating a lower resting threshold because these sounds ra rely occur. This difference in resting threshold indicates that plebeian sounds are more activated at rest than are rare sounds. Consequently, common sounds should reach the activation threshold for recognition or production more rapidly than should rare sounds. Turning to connection strength, each sound has a facilitory connection to sounds that it may co-occur with, and the strength of these connections may be altered by language experience. When sounds are commonly encountered ogether in word processing, it is thought that the connection between the two sounds is strengthened. In this way, the model captures how an adult or child would learn the phonotactic probability of the language through experience. In Figure 1, the phonological representation /s/ has a strong facilitory connection to that of /I/ because these sounds commonly occur together in words of the language. In contrast, in Figure 2, the phonological representation of /I/ has a weak facilitory connection to that of /i/, because these rarely occur together. Because the strength of the facilitory connection determines how much ctivation will spread to the related sound, sound sequences with strong facilitory connections, to wit common sound sequences, should reach the activation threshold for recognition or production more rapidly than should sound sequences with weak facilitory connections, namely, rare sound sequences. The influence of phonotactic probability on resting threshold and connection strength leads to the prediction that common sound sequences should be recognized or produced more rapidly than rare sound sequences. Support for this hypothesis is found in studies of spoken word processing by adults. In fact, adults recognize common ound sequences more rapidly than they do rare sound sequences (Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999 Vitevitch, Luce, Charles-Luce, & Kemmerer, 1997). A similar pattern is observed in speech production, where adults are faster to name a word if it is composed of a common sound sequence rather than a rare sound sequence (Levelt & Wheeldon, 1994). Interactions Between Lexical and Phonological Representations Turning to the interaction between lexical and phonological representations, it is important to note that there are facilitory connections between lexical and phonological representations.That is, /sIt/ has facilitory connections to /s/, /I/, and /t/, whereas /Diz/ is connected to /D/, /i/, and /z/. The lexical representations of the neighbors of /sIt/ and /Diz/ also have connections to phonological representations, but not all of these connections are shown in Figures 1 and 2 because it becomes difficult to follow the connections when all are presented together. For example, /sut/ should have facilitory connections to /s/ and /t/, but these are not displayed in Figure 1. The implication of these lexicalphonological connections is that once a lexical representation is activated, it will also activate its equal honological representation. Activation can also occur in the opposite civiliseion, with a phonological representation activating corresponding lexical representations. These connections between lexical and phonological representations allow for interactions between lexical and phonological processing. One way that the interaction between lexical and phonological representations has been investigated in the in full developed system of adults is by considering the unique relationship between neighborhood density, a lexical variable, and phonotactic probability, a phonological variable. Namely, words from dense neighborhoods tend to e composed of common sound sequences, and words from sparse neighborhoods tend to be composed of rare sound sequences (Vitevitch, Luce, Pisoni, & Auer, 1999). The evidence detailed in the previous sections indicated that dense neighborhoods slow spoken word processing, whereas common sound sequences speed word processing. Given the association between neighborhood density and phono tactic probability, the inhibitory effect of neighborhood density and the facilitory effect of phonotactic probability would seem incompatible. If the two factors are associated, how is it that one aids word recognition and production but the ther interferes with it? If one appeals to the variable of neighborhood density, one would predict that processing of a word from a dense neighborhood, such as sit, would be 4In some cases, asymmetries have been noted in the effect of neighborhood density across perception and production. In fact, some models predict that dense neighborhoods should facilitate production (see MacKay, 1987 Vitevitch, 2001a). 5Note that computations of phonotactic probability are based on a 20,000- word dictionary generally consisting of uninflected word forms (see also Jusczyk et al. , 1994 Luce et al. 2000 Storkel, 2001 Storkel & Rogers, 2000 Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). Therefore, /z/ is considered to occur infrequently in uninflected word forms, although it may occur often as a plural morpheme. The status of lexical representations of inflected words is an open question. Storkel Morrisette The Lexicon and Phonology 29 inhibited relative to a word from a sparse neighborhood, such as these. In contrast, if one appeals to the variable of phonotactic probability, one would predict that processing of a word having a common sound sequence, such as sit, would be facilitated relative to a word having a rare sound equence, such as these. How can processing of sit be both(prenominal) inhibited and facilitated? This paradox may be resolved by appealing to the tworepresentation model. If one type of representation is able to dominate word processing in a given context, this will dictate whether an inhibitory or facilitory effect is observed. The lexical status of the stimulus is predicted to influence the effect of neighborhood density and phonotactic probability on processing. In particular, lexical processing is predicted to dominate language tasks involving real words because real words have a lexical representation.In contrast, phonological processing is predicted to dominate language tasks involving nonwords because nonwords have no lexical representation. This prediction is borne out by evidence from studies of spoken word processing by adults. In fact, recognition of real words from dense neighborhoods is inhibited relative to real words from sparse neighborhoods, supporting the pronouncement of lexical processing (Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). In complement, recognition of nonwords composed of common sound sequences is facilitated relative to nonwords composed of rare sound sequences, supporting the dominance f phonological processing (Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). Because spoken word processing typically involves real words, lexical processing generally should dominate recognition and production (but see Vitevitch, 2001b). APPLICATION TO development The two-representation model seems to capture lexical and ph onological influences on perception and production successfully in the fully developed system of adults. Can this model be applied to perception and production in the developing system of infants and children? To address this question, evidence of how the lexicon influences spoken word processing in infants and children is reviewed and ompared to the findings from adults. If the findings from the developing system mate those from the fully developed system, then the two-representation model may easily be extended to the developing system. In contrast, if word processing in the developing system differs from word processing in the fully developed system, then the tworepresentation model may require modification before application to the developing system. This question is important because it bears on the issue of whether the tworepresentation model may offer insights into learning and clinical practice. Studies of the developing language system provide urther insight into the role of word frequency and neighborhood density in spoken word processing. Perception studies with infants have investigated aspects of the spoken input that infants attend to while building the mental lexicon (see Jusczyk, 1997 for review). In one representative study of word frequency, infants were exposed to sets of words that were frequently repeated in stories versus other sets of words that were infrequently repeated (Hohne, Jusczyk, & Rendanz, 1994 Jusczyk & Aslin, 1995). Results indicated that infants preferred listening to the frequently occurring words in the chronicle. This finding suggests that nfants have the ability to attend to specific words in the input. More all over, the infants in the study were able to differentiate words based on their frequency of occurrence. Word frequency has also been shown to influence modern childrens production accuracy of stub sounds. Leonard and Ritterman (1971) found that 7-year-old children had better production accuracy of target /s/ sounds in frequent versus infrequent words in the language (but see Moore, Burke, & Adams, 1976). Computational studies of young children have further explored the structure of words in the early lexicon relative to neighborhood density.These studies used receptive and expressive estimates of young childrens lexicons. One important finding was that young children have relatively sparse neighborhoods in comparison to older children and adults (Charles-Luce & Luce, 1990, 1995 Logan, 1992). That is, a word in a young childs lexicon would have fewer neighbors than that same word in an older childs or an adults lexicon. Neighborhood density may increase across the lifespan as more phonetically similar words are added to the lexicon (Logan, 1992). This finding led to the hypothesis that young children se global recognition strategies to identify words (Charles- Luce & Luce, 1990, 1995). Because neighborhoods are so sparse, all of the fine-grained phonetic contrasts of language may not be needful to uniquely elucidate one word from another. Alternatively, it has been argued that children do rely on fine-grained recognition strategies (Dollaghan, 1994). The basis for this comes from the fact that young children do differentiate between minimally and phonetically similar words of the input. Even a word that has only one neighbor must still require fine-grained coding on the part of the child for accurate recognition.Although these views about whether children use global or finegrained recognition strategies remain at odds, it is nominate that the structure of words in the lexicon appears to be critically linked to the nature of a childs phonological representations. Taken together, these findings support that a words frequency and its neighborhood density play a similar role in fully developed and developing lexicons. In the developing language system, sensitivity to phonotactic probability emerges early, with phonotactic probability influencing perception in a ai r similar to adults.In perceptual tasks, 9-month-old infants listen longer to lists of words composed of common sound sequences than to those composed of rare sound sequences (Jusczyk et al. , 1994). Moreover, infants appear to acquire phonotactic probability rapidly in controlled listening conditions (Aslin, Saffran, & Newport, 1998 Saffran, Aslin, & Newport, 1996). After listening to strings of nonsense syllables for a sententious period of time, 8-month-old infants are able to discriminate syllable sequences that commonly co-occur from those that rarely co-occur. That is, syllables that commonly co-occurred in the speech 0 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 sample were treat as a whole word syllables that rarely co-occurred were not treated as a whole word. The evidence indicates that infants may learn the likelihood of occurrence of sound sequences in the ambient language, and then they use this to parse unremitting speech into indi vidual words. Sensitivity to phonotactic probability continues into childhood, as shown in metalinguistic, perceptual, and production tasks. In metalinguistic tasks, children and adolescents are able to differentiate sound sequences that re legal in their language from those that are illegal (Messer, 1967 Pertz & Bever, 1975). nipperren, like adults, seem to have intuitions about phonotactics (e. g. , Vitevitch et al. , 1997). Perceptual and production studies provide evidence that children are also painful to the more finegrained distinction of common versus rare sound sequences. Relative to perceptual evidence, children rapidly extract the phonotactic probabilities of continuous strings of nonsense syllables. Like infants, children treat strings of syllables that commonly co-occur as an entire word and strings of yllables that rarely co-occur as a part of a word (Saffran, Newport, Aslin, Tunick, & Barrueco, 1997). In production, children are more accurate at producing sound sequ ences that are permissible in the ambient language than those that are not (Messer, 1967). Moreover, children are more accurate at repeating common rather than rare sound sequences (Beckman & Edwards, 1999). Likewise, when given a list of nonwords to remember, children recall more nonwords if the list contains common sound sequences than if it contains rare sound sequences (Gathercole, Frankish, Pickering, & Peaker, 1999).In childhood, sensitivity to phonotactic probability remains and appears to influence spoken word processing in a manner that parallels the fully developed adult system. The effects of word frequency, neighborhood density, and phonotactic probability on language perception and production in the developing system parallel those in the fully developed system. In terms of lexical variables, across the lifespan, processing of frequent words was facilitated relative to infrequent words, and processing of words from dense neighborhoods was inhibited relative to words fro m sparse neighborhoods. In terms of phonological variables, cross the lifespan, common sound sequences were recognized and produced more rapidly than were rare sound sequences. Given the similarity between the adult and child findings, it appears that the two-representation model can be applied to perception and production by children. APPLICATION TO LEARNING Because the two-representation model captures perception and production by children, it may also provide insights into learning by children. In the followers two sections, insights of the two-representation model for sound change and word learning will be offered and evaluated relative to authorized findings.The studies reviewed focus on interactions between the lexicon and phonology in preschool and school-age children who have lexicons with many more than 50 words. These investigations provide evidence of whether lexical-phonological interactions continue in development beyond the 50-word stage. Promoting Sound Change When a sound is unknown, the child presumably will have no ambient, or adult-like, phonological representation for the target sound. In some cases, interference may be needed to promote sound change. The goal of treatment then is to acquire an ambient phonological representation for the nknown sound, often by presenting the target sound in words and providing feedback regarding production accuracy. Given the absence of an ambient phonological representation, lexical processing is predicted to dominate sound learning in this treatment context. Thus, lexical representations may influence the success of phonological treatment. In particular, treatment of the sound in frequent words should promote sound change relative to infrequent words. Furthermore, embedding the sound in words from dense neighborhoods should inhibit learning when compared to treatment of the sound in words from sparse neighborhoods.An experimental treatment study by Gierut, Morrisette, and Champion (1999) examined the role of lexical variables in phonological treatment (see also Morrisette & Gierut, in press). Twelve children with functional phonological delays, aged 30 (yearsmonths) to 74, participated in an alternating treatments determination to promote sound change. The characteristics of word frequency and neighborhood density were manipulated experimentally. Experimental conditions included treatment of all possible combinations of frequent/ infrequent words from dense/sparse neighborhoods. Each child was taught two sounds affiliated with the lexical haracteristics of the assigned conditions. For example, a child assigned to the frequent versus infrequent condition was taught one sound in frequent words and another sound in infrequent words. Treated sounds were excluded from the pretreatment inventory and were produced with 0% accuracy. Generalization accuracy in production of the treated sounds to untreated words and contexts was heedful as the dependent variable and submitted to statist ical analysis. Treatment conditions and corresponding results are shown in flurry 1. Results revealed that for the lexical characteristic of ord frequency, phonological treatment employ frequent words induced significantly greater inductance learning than did treatment of infrequent words. For neighborhood density, treatment in words from sparse neighborhoods induced significantly greater installation learning than did treatment in words from dense neighborhoods. When the frequency conditions were compared to the density conditions, treatment in both frequent and infrequent words resulted in significantly greater generalization learning than did treatment in words from dense neighborhoods. Further, treatment in frequent and infrequent words resulted in reater or kindred generalization learning than treatment of words from sparse neighborhoods. Overall, the characteristic of word frequency was most prominent in inducing phonological change as compared to neighborhood density. M oreover, in every comparative Storkel Morrisette The Lexicon and Phonology 31 condition, frequent words consistently facilitated sound change, whereas words from dense neighborhoods consistently failed to promote generalization learning. These results were replicated by Morrisette and Gierut (in press) and are consistent with the predictions of the two-representation model.Frequent words in the language consistently emerged as facilitating spoken word processing and learning, whereas words from dense neighborhoods in the language consistently emerged as inhibiting spoken word processing and learning. Moreover, phonological learning by preschool children was influenced by the lexicon, paralleling previous findings from much younger children. Novel Word culture Applying the two-representation model to novel word learning, a child presumably will have no corresponding lexical representation for a newly encountered word. In the absence of a lexical representation, the two-representati on odel predicts that phonological processing will be most influential. Thus, phonological processing is hypothesized to influence the creation of a lexical representation for the novel word. Because phonological processing is facilitated for common over rare sound sequences, children should learn novel words composed of common sound sequences more rapidly than they should those composed of rare sound sequences. Storkel and Rogers (2000) provided a direct test of this hypothesis that phonotactic probability should influence word learning. Typically developing school-age children from three age groups, age 7, 10, and 11, participated in a onword learning task, where half of the nonwords were composed of common sound sequences and half were composed of rare sound sequences. The target nonwords were associated with unfamiliar butts. Children were exposed to the nonword-object pairs in a lecture format, and denotative identification was tested immediately following exposure. The resul ts showed a significant interaction between phonotactic probability and age. The two older groups of children intimate more common than rare sound sequences the youngest group of children showed no difference in learning common versus rare sound sequences.This interaction between phonotactic probability and age was not predicted and was further investigated in a second study (Storkel, 2001). In Storkel (2001), word learning by preschool children was investigated in a multi-trial word learning paradigm. In particular, nonword learning was assessed in several tasks emphasizing either form or referent learning at multiple points in time. Preschool children were exposed to nonwords Half were composed of common sound sequences and half were composed of rare sound sequences. The nonwords served as names for nonsense objects. The nonword-object pairs were mbedded in a story containing multiple story episodes with learning creation assessed after each episode. Results showed that across m easures of learning and exposures, preschool children learned more nonwords composed of common rather than rare sound sequences. Across the two studies, younger and older children seemed to learn novel words composed of common sound sequences more rapidly than they did those composed of rare sound sequences, supporting the predictions of the two-representation model. As in language perception and production tasks that are dominated by phonological processing, word learning was facilitated for common ound sequences relative to rare. Phonological characteristics appeared to play a role in word learning by preschool and school-age children, complementing previous findings with younger children. Phonology appeared to influence lexical development beyond the 50-word stage. Moreover, various aspects of phonology seem to impact development of the lexicon, including the childs phonetic inventory and the phonotactic probability of the novel word (Leonard et al. , 1981 Schwartz & Leonard, 198 2 Storkel, 2001 Storkel & Rogers, 2000). clinical IMPLICATIONS The finding of a continued interaction between the exicon and phonology in children who have surpassed the 50-word threshold has clinical implications for children with functional phonological delays and children with specific language impairment. Children with functional phonological delays reportedly have a pristine delay in the acquisition of phonology. Given the evidence documenting an interaction between the lexicon and phonology, lexical characteristics may play a role in promoting sound change. In contrast, children with specific language impairment appear to gift delays in lexical acquisition (e. g. , Dollaghan, 1987 Oetting, Rice, & Swank, 1995 Rice,Buhr, & Nemeth, 1990 Rice & Woodsmall, 1988). Phonological variables may provide insights in the diagnosis and treatment of delays in word learning. Children With Functional Phonological Delays The results of Gierut and colleagues (1999) indicate that lexical varia bles of target words do appear to influence the control board 1. Experimental results of the Gierut et al. (1999) study. Treatment condition Generalization results Frequent versus infrequent Frequent infrequent Dense versus sparse Sparse dense Frequent versus dense Frequent dense Infrequent versus dense Infrequent denseFrequent versus sparse Frequent = sparse Infrequent versus sparse Infrequent sparse Note. The symbol indicates greater than (e. g. , treatment of sounds in frequent words resulted in significantly greater generalization learning than infrequent words). The symbol ? indicates greater than or equivalent (e. g. , treatment of sounds in infrequent words resulted in greater or equivalent generalization learning than sparse words). The symbol = indicates equivalent (e. g. , treatment of sounds in frequent words resulted in generalization learning that was equivalent to sparse words). 2 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 pr ocess of sound change in treatment for children with functional phonological delays. When children were taught sounds in frequently occurring words, they made significant gains in their production accuracy of the target sound. In contrast, when children were taught sounds in words from dense neighborhoods, they failed to learn the treated sound. This suggests that phonological treatment should focus on frequent words in the language and avoid the use of words from dense neighborhoods. These results have direct linical implications for the kinds of words that should be selected for phonological treatment. A sample of treatment words is presented in Table 2. These words were adapted from the Morrisette and Gierut (in press) study and are consistent with procedures for the selection of treatment words in the Gierut et al. (1999) study. In this sample, the target fricative /f/ was taught in the word-initial position of frequent words in the language. Word frequency counts were obtained from KucUera and Francis (1967) neighborhood density value came from a computational database of 20,000 English words (Nusbaum et al. 1984). Frequency counts and density values are more generally available for clinical use through the online Neighborhood Database at http//www. artsci. wustl. edu/ msommers. Operational definitions for frequent versus infrequent and dense versus sparse neighborhoods were consistent with previous investigations of word frequency in phonological acquisition (e. g. , Morrisette, 1999). Frequent words were selected based on a word frequency count greater than 100. Thus, all of the words in Table 2 have a word frequency greater than 100. Further, because a word has both a frequency and a density, the words were alanced for neighborhood density. Half of the words came from dense neighborhoods, with 10 or more neighbors, and half of the words came from sparse neighborhoods, with fewer than 10 neighbors. Following from the Gierut et al. (1999) and Morrisette and Gierut (in press) studies, treated words were see on a computer screen and elicited through drill activities. Children attended three 1-hour treatment sessions each week and proceeded through two phases of treatment imitation and spontaneous production. During the imitation phase, the child named the treated words following a clinicians model.Imitation continued until the child achieved 75% production accuracy of the target sound across two consecutive sessions or until s notwithstanding sessions were completed, whichever came first. During the spontaneous phase, the child named the treated words without a model. This phase continued until the child achieved 90% production accuracy of the target sound across three consecutive sessions or until twelve sessions were completed, whichever came first. Feedback related to the accuracy of the childs production of the target sound was provided during both phases. Generalization learning for each child was monitored hrough spontaneous p icture-naming tasks or probes. These probes were designed to sample the treated sound and other untreated sounds that were excluded from the childs pretreatment sound inventory in untreated words and across contexts. Probes were administered throughout treatment, immediately following treatment, and at 2 weeks and 2 months posttreatment. Percentages of accuracy were then calculated and plotted as generalization learning curves. Thus, based on results from Gierut et al. (1999), it is predicted that phonological treatment using the frequent words illustrated in Table 2 would result in generalization f /f/ to untreated words and contexts. It should be noted that although half of the frequent words selected were from dense neighborhoods, the consistent variable was word frequency. Treatment programs consisting of words that are all from dense neighborhoods should be avoided. Based on the Gierut et al. (1999) study, treatment in words from dense neighborhoods resulted in minimal or no le arning of the treated sound. Children With Specific Language Impairment The results of Storkel (2001) suggest that the phonological characteristics of novel words influence lexical acquisition. Thus, clinically, it may be important to consider honotactic probability in the diagnosis and treatment of delays in lexical acquisition in children with specific language impairment. These children may have difficulty learning phonotactic probability due to either perceptual processing deficits (Ellis Weismer & Hesketh, 1996, 1998) or limited lexical exemplars resulting from delays in language acquisition. Children with specific language impairment may fail to show a learning advantage for common over rare sound sequences. In support of this hypothesis, Storkel reported that increased vocabulary size was correlated with an increased learning advantage for ommon over rare sound sequences in children with ageappropriate lexical development. Delays in word learning and a decreased effect of pho notactic probability may go hand in hand. As a result, it may be necessary to examine the influence of phonotactic probability on word learning in this population. Unfortunately, standardized measures of vocabulary may not be sensitive to the factors that affect word learning because these tests examine the products of learning rather than the process itself. Therefore, clinicians may need to construct tasks that investigate the process of word learning to provide further insights into the factors hat contribute to a particular childs poor word learning ability. Here, guidance is provided by past experimental Table 2. Sample of frequent treatment words. Word Word frequency Neighborhood density fine 161 28 full 230 15 feed 123 19 far 427 18 family 331 0 field 274 9 final 156 6 forward 115 0 Note. Neighborhood density counts in bold indicate words from dense neighborhoods. Storkel Morrisette The Lexicon and Phonology 33 studies that have employed procedures that may be adapted for cl inical use. In particular, the procedures used in Storkel (2001) may be appropriate. This multi-trial word earning paradigm was administered distributively in one 30- minute session with a follow-up 10-minute session to examine retention. Thus, the time payload is similar to other standardized test protocols. Moreover, Storkel and Rogers (2000) successfully administered their word learning task to groups of students in a classroom. There are several important steps in constructing a measure of word learning (a) identifying the stimuli to be learned, (b) exposing the child to the stimuli, and (c) measuring learning. Each step will be described in turn. Stimuli. designation of the stimuli to be learned nvolves choosing nonwords or unknown real words and associating these with referents. In Storkel (2001), nonwords were selected as stimuli so that the phonological characteristics could be controlled. Specifically, all nonwords were composed of early acquired consonants that were art iculated correctly by the participating children. This guarded against the influence of misarticulation on word learning (Leonard et al. , 1981 Schwartz & Leonard, 1982). Half of the nonwords were composed of common sound sequences and half were composed of rare sound sequences. Calculation of phonotactic probability is complex and equires access to a database however, several produce studies provide lists of common versus rare nonwords (e. g. , Jusczyk et al. , 1994 Storkel, 2001 Storkel & Rogers, 2000 Vitevitch & Luce, 1999) or words (e. g. , Vitevitch & Luce, 1999). The nonwords used in Storkel are shown in Table 3. The nonwords were paired with object referents to parallel real words. Novel objects were invented or adapted from published childrens stories. Objects were selected in pairs from the same semantic category. Each object from a semantic pair was associated with either a common or a rare sound sequence.In this way, semantic and conceptual factors were similar across th e levels of phonotactic probability. A description of the objects is provided in Table 3. Exposure. For exposure, the nonword-object pairs were embedded in a story containing three story episodes. Pictures were adapted from childrens stories (Mayer, 1993) to show two main characters interacting with one another and with the nonsense objects. Semantically paired objects were shown in the same picture, with each being associated with a different main character. A story narrative was created to accompany the story pictures. The narrative is shown in the Appendix.Note that the exposure sentences were matched across common and rare sound sequences. For example, in the first episode, the exposure sentence for the common sound sequence /pin/ is My favorite is the pin and for the rare sound sequence /mOId/ is My favorite is the mOId. This unified of sentences was intended to equate syntactic factors across the levels of phonotactic probability. Another feature of the story narrative was t hat the number of times the nonwords were repeated varied across the episodes. That is, the children heard each nonword one time in Episode 1, but three times in Episodes 2 and 3.Given that children with specific language impairment reportedly need more exposures to learn novel words, it may be necessary to increase the number of repetitions of the nonwords for this clinical population. This could be consummate by revising the story narrative or by having the child listen to the narrative twice. Measurement. Storkel (2001) measured learning after each story episode. Three measures of learning were obtained referent identification, form identification, and picture naming. In the referent identification task, a nonword was presented and the child attempted to select he object from a field of three picture choices that included the target, the semantically related referent, and a semantically unrelated referent presented in the story. For the target nonword /pin/, the child saw pictur es of both glass machines and a picture of one of the pets. In the form identification task, an object was presented and the child attempted to select the nonword from a field of three Table 3. The phonetic transcription of the common and rare sound sequences and their corresponding referents as invented or adapted from published childrens stories. Form characteristics Referent characteristicsCommon Rare Category Item 1 Item 2 w I t n aU b Toys punch toy cork gun (Geisel & Geisel, (Geisel & Geisel, 1958, p. 53) 1958, p. 45) h ? p g i m Horns orange trumpet yellow hand-held downward orientation tuba (Geisel & Geisel, (Geisel & Geisel, 1954, p. 50) 1954, p. 50) p i n m OI d Candy machines red candy + 1 chute blue candy + 2 chutes (invented) (invented) k oU f j eI p Pets green gerbil with antenna purple mouse-bat (DeBrunhoff, 1981, p. 132) (Mayer, 1992, p. 43) 34 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS Vol. 33 2437 January 2002 choices. The choices paralleled those of t he referent dentification task. For example, the child was shown a picture of one of the candy machines and heard three possible names, /pin/, /mOId/, and /koUf/. As each nonword was played, the investigator pointed to one of three squares. The child then pointed to the square associated with his or her answer. In the picture-naming task, an object was presented and the child attempted to produce the nonword. Again, the child might see a picture of one of the candy machines, but this time be asked to produce the nonword associated with the object with no choices or prompting provided by the investigator.Following political science of these procedures, parity correct can then be computed for common versus rare sound sequences at each test point (Episode 1, Episode 2, Episode 3) for each measure of learning (referent identification, form identification, picture naming). release scores can then be computed by subtracting proportion correct for rare sound sequences from proportion co rrect for common sound sequences. If there is an advantage of common over rare sound sequences, the resulting number will be positive. This would parallel the findings for typically developing children (Storkel, 2001 Storkel & Rogers, 2000).If there is no difference between common and rare sound sequences, then the resulting number will be zero. If there is a disadvantage of common relative to rare sound sequences, the resulting number will be negative. In either of these last two cases, the result would differ from those reported for typically developing children. This would suggest that one contributing factor to the childs difficulties with word learning may be difficulty using phonological information to support word learning. CONCLUSION The findings reviewed support the hypothesis that the lexicon and phonology seem to continue to influence one nother even after the 50-word threshold has been surpassed. In particular, the relationship in preschool and school-age children appear ed to be bidirectional in nature, with the lexicon influencing phonological acquisition and phonology influencing lexical acquisition. The tworepresentation model of word processing held promise in capturing this relationship. Thus, models of spoken word processing may hold potential for understanding the process of language acquisition. From a clinical perspective, this theoretical model may guide the diagnosis and treatment of phonological or lexical delays in children. ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis research was supported in part by grants from the National Institutes of Health to Indiana University, Bloomington (DC01694 DC00012 DC04781). We appreciate the insightful comments and discussion provided by Judith A. Gierut, Jessica A. Barlow, and an anonymous reviewer on previous versions of this manuscript. REFERENCES Aslin, R. N. , Saffran, J. R. , & Newport, E. L. (1998). 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